General features: Ginseng, an English name of popular Chinese herb (re`nshe`n)means shape of human body displaying arms and legs. It was characterized later using the botanical name, Panax provided by the legendary Swedish botanist / naturalist, Carl Linnaeus. The name, Panax is originated from the Greek word meaning “Healing and Cure for all”. In English it means ‘panacea’. Linnaeus was quite aware of its widespread popularity in China owing to multitude of medicinal values. So, he offered the name ‘Panax’ as a suitable measure. The plant is perennial and first discovered in Manchuria, Northern China around 5000 years ago. It was used as food but later it finds application in traditional Chinese medicine. The historical fact has been penned in ‘The classics of herbal medicine of Shen-Nung’ by Emperor Shen-Nung who is believed to be the father of Chinese medicine (~ 3500 BC). He catalogued 365 medicinal herbs in his lifetime. Astonishingly, he personally tasted many of them. Ginseng Panax / American Ginseng / Panax Quinquefolius is a herbaceous perennial plant belonging to Ivy / Araliaceae family. The plant is 6 – 18 inches tall bearing three leaves, 2 – 5inches long. It is also claimed to be a native of North America. Its root shapes like parsnip that forks when it becomes matured. Factually, there is no botanical differences between Panax Ginseng and Ginseng / Panax Quinquefolius except concerning the level of Ginsenosides. It is claimed that the former synthesizes more, although somewhat controversial. Besides China, Korea, and Japan, it grows in Eastern and Central part of US around Appalachian and Ozark regions also in parts of South Eastern Canada and Siberia. It is largely claimed that Siberian Ginseng is a different species. But considering pharmacological and medicinal role, particularly owing to its more adaptogenic behavior, it is to some extent closer to Panax Ginseng. Siberian species bears the name Eleuthero, and it does not belong to Panax genus. In reality, the term ‘adaptogen’ was coined by the Soviet scientists for its unique behavior providing immense vitality to better adapt any physical or mental stress. Instead of Ginsenosides, it produces Eleutheroside B (Syringin), Eleutherosides A – M (all of them are different compounds) Friedelin (pentacyclic terpene) and Isofraxidin (coumarin derivative). Some of the Eleutherosides bear structural similarity with Ginsenosides having steroidal moiety. Like Panax, Siberian Ginseng is also used by the Chinese for nearly 2000 years. It is the reason how the name ‘Ginseng’ has been picked up. It is used to treat infections, bronchitis, to increase concentration and memory, to enhance energy, providing more resistance power and longevity. Soldiers, astronauts, pilots, athletes were using its root extract around seventies to boost activities, performances, and concentrations. It is an endangered wildlife botanical product. But it is now grown only at the licensed farm in Russia. Panax Ginseng and those belong to same genus is accepted to be the actual Ginseng. The plant is revered for exhibiting overwhelming rejuvenating power. As per the Chinese myth, it is a symbol of divine harmony on earth. In China, the legend says, “Ginseng strengthens the soul, brightens the eyes, opens the heart, expels evil, benefits understanding and if taken for prolonged periods of time will invigorate the body and prolongs one’s life.” This is the most widely consumed herb used as alternative medicine throughout the world. In 2013, annual production was 80,000 tons bringing approximate revenues of $2.1 billion. In 2016, it became 5.2 million kilograms, worth of ~ $4.5 billion. The projected sale of 2025 is expected to be $7.51 billion. Recently, massive attention has been focused on Ginseng research to treat chronic metabolic diseases. Concerning its therapeutic role, it has multitude of beneficial effects.
History of Ginseng in China: As perthe medicinal role, particularly considering the remedy of numerous diseases including erectile dysfunction using Ginseng, Emperor Shen-Nung should be sincerely credited for his initiating work. Additionally, there is a mythical Chinese story. The story illustrates that in the village of Shantang the villagers were used to wake up often in the middle of night at the howling cry coming out of the nearby forest. People stayed afraid, but few dared to go after the source. While investigating they found the source lying beneath the bush. After digging the base, they found human shaped root which they claim crying for help to come out. They offered the name ‘spirit of earth’ which was later designated to be ‘Ginseng’. With time Ginseng earned popularity so its price is soared. Eventually it became affordable only to the people of elite status, like landlords and Emperor. The roots were so valuable that it was sold only in exchange of gold by weighing. The elites used to reserve it only for themselves. Later, large businesses of Ginseng production were eventually developed together with the starting of its export, which was lasted until the 3rd century AD. Along with it, illegal trading also became rampant since demand outstripped the production limit. Around 16th century successful experiment of Ginseng farming was established. As a result, a lucrative trade was started rooting to China. Afterward, its popularity spread to the other parts of world. It then traded its way to Middle Eastern and European nations via the silk-road like in addition with the other commodities.
History of Ginseng use and erectile dysfunction: Emperor Shen-Nung identified the medicinal action of Ginseng root and inscribed it in his book, particularly focusing the importance as an aphrodisiac. He promoted Ginseng root for treating erectile dysfunction also prescribed it for elevating sexual appetite and desire, libido. Besides physiological sensation, the myth provokes people to believe because of its appearance as phallic shape. Emperor Shen-Nung also trusted that the resemblance to human phallic is the probable reason for its rejuvenating effect. He recommended its use for men in order to boost the sexual performance and enhancing the potency. According to Indian Ayurveda, Ginseng provides men both young and old, the power of a bull even it is not so abundant in Indian soil. But the use of Ginseng extends far beyond its ability for successful treatment of erectile dysfunction. It also acts as a potent tonic enabling to stimulate immune system, increases stamina, cognitive functions, and other wellbeing. From the very ancient time Ginseng root was prescribed to alleviate physiological and emotional stresses. It lowers anxiety, chronic fatigue syndrome, controls diabetes, hepatitis C, and hypertension. In Korea people believe that Ginseng can slow the aging process. Ginseng root helps control the menopausal syndrome within women. The recent studies indicate that commercially available Panax Ginseng contain more than 30 Ginsenosides, which is considered to be the active ingredients contributing to major pharmacological actions. Ginseng is an adaptogen which is mentioned by the herbalists. It enhances the resistance of body while experiencing any stress. It is assumed that Ginseng channels the body’s energy to the areas required to heal.
Chemical constituents: Ginseng synthesize numerous bioactive compounds like, Ginseng saponins, fatty acids, polysaccharides, and oils. Among those the major medicinal actions are primarily due to triterpene saponins named, Ginsenosides. Approximately 40 Ginsenosides are identified. Considering its migration distances in thin layer chromatography (TLC) plate they are named as Rb1, Rb2, Re, Rc etc. The widely studied constituents are Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Re and Rd. Uniquely, each component shows different pharmacological actions including the mechanism. For example, glucose moiety attached to 20th carbon of dammarane triterpene like Re, Rd and R1 act as antioxidant. On the contrary, no sugar linked to 20th carbon like Rg3, Rh2 and Rg2 function as pro-oxidant. However, in case of Rh1, when glucose is attached to 6th carbon instead of 20th in that situation, the molecule behaves as antioxidant. Enormous studies were performed indicating immense therapeutic potential of Ginseng as well as its isolated bio-active components which enable to boost physical activities while acting as tonic or else imposing regulatory effects on immunomodulation, anticancer actions, and other beneficial functions concerning cardiovascular and central nervous system. Besides the Ginsenosides, plant also synthesizes polyacetylenes, phenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, alkaloids, poly saccharides, and oligopeptides.
They are further characterized for belonging to dammarane type that includes panaxadiol type (PPD) having only H atom at C6 position, panaxatriol type (PPT) having sugar chain attached to C6 carbon atom, and oleanane type. The dammarane type exists in larger amount compared to oleanane variety. Dammarane type includes Rb1 and Rg1 having the aglycones PPD or PPT. The oleanane type exists in minor level whose aglycone is oleanolic acid. Studies further indicate that Rg1and Rf1 are located within outer bark at high level whereas Rb1 exists at huge level in roots, rhizomes, root hair compared to stems and leaves. Interestingly, experiments indicate that these saponins are difficult to be absorbed intact by the intestine after ingesting orally owing to its hydrophilic nature. Only a little amount could be absorbed without any breakdown via intestinal tract. Experiments also indicate that intestinal flora degrades the saponin molecules releasing smaller fragments of saponin or aglycones allowing better absorption into the body. Essentially, the nonpolar triterpene moiety exerts the main biologic effects. The hydrophobic steroid moiety intercalates within interior of the lipid bilayer intending to further interact with heads of the membrane phospholipids facilitating entrance of the molecule into cell modulating intracellular functions while binding to the cytoplasmic receptors. Numerous mechanisms are anticipated like the changes of membrane fluidity and subsequent binding to the steroid receptors liable for biological effects. It is experimentally proven that Ginseng saponins can modify the membrane protein structure by changing membrane dynamics thereby modulating the ion-channels activity, membrane linked receptors or enzymes. In that way, a singly saponin enables to create multiple effects. Concerning the traditional benefits, Ginseng is known to replenish energy and enhances the longevity. From the ancient period, Ginseng is regarded as a panacea enabling to offer eternal youth, enhancing strength, and revitalizing mind and body. The adaptogenic behavior of Ginseng and its isolated product Ginseng saponins are already established. Those molecules act against stress and fatigue providing resistances to numerous pathological factors to rejuvenate the body. The saponins help forming the blood vessels thereby improving the blood circulation in brain. The effect enhances memory and subsequently the cognitive functions. Experiments verified that Ginsenoside Rg3 plays favorable role against fatigue if administered via the nasal cavity using nano-emulsion enhancing residence time thus helping increase absorption. Both PPD and PPT derivatives are noticed to exert anti-stress and anti-fatigue activities in animal models.
Polyacetylenes– Apart from Ginsenosides, other bioactive components synthesized in the plant also contribute to overall medicinal effects. Among them polyacetylenes, Panaxynol and its epoxide Panaxydol and other polyacetylene components recently draw large attention for their anticancer properties. One of the major polyacetylene compounds is Panaxynol. The others are Panaxydol, Ginsenoyne A – E and Panaxytriol. Considering their structural similarities, it is presumed that they are derived from the linear C18 unsaturated fatty acids. Even it is presumptuous, but experiments show the possibility that 3 – hydroxy-oleic acid might act as an intermediate in the Panaxynol biosynthesis.
Phenolic compounds – Approximately ten phenolic components are isolated from Ginseng. Those are Salicylic acid, vanillic acid, ascorbic acid, p – coumaric acid, Ferulic acid, Caffeic acid, Gentisic acid, p- hydroxy benzoic acid, Maltol, Protocatechuic acid, Syringic acid, and Quercitin. Interestingly, the berries, leaves and roots from young (3 – 6 years old) plants produce phenolic components differently eg, chlorogenic acid, Gentisic acid, p – and m- coumaric acid and rutin are the major ingredients. Phenolic compounds are largely responsible for antioxidative and anticancer activities also has antimicrobial and antifungal properties.
Sesquiterpenes – About fifteen sesquiterpenes are identified in Panax Ginseng as shown below. They are beneficial for tumor treatment and supports immune system and exert calming effect. Further they also have protective role against microbes and act as antioxidant helping repair any damaged cells or tissues.
Alkaloids – These alkaloids are seen to be the minor components in Ginseng, but they have some physiological role. Usually, β – carboline compounds is known to exert effects on the CNS. Since the level of alkaloids in Ginseng is much less so no significant studies are made to ascertain the biological actions of alkaloid fractions. It is definite that they do have some physiological role. The compound 4-methyl-5-thiazoleethanol might have potentiating role on GABA receptor function. It may also offer neuroprotective action. Spinacine inhibits GABA uptake. Ginsenine is a new alkaloid found recently in the berries having seven-member lactam ring. Preliminary works indicate that this alkaloid might have beneficial role on cognitive function.
Polysaccharides – Ginseng of all varieties contains numerous types of polysaccharides, panaxans I – L & M – P & Q – U and panasans A – E isolated from the roots. They induce significant hypoglycemic actions. The composition of polysaccharides varies depending on strains and places of growth. Analysis shows that they are extremely diverse by nature and composition but mostly built of neutral sugars like rhamnose, galactose, arabinose, and glucose. In addition to hypoglycemic role several Ginseng polysaccharides exert potent immunomodulatory effect. They are Ginsenan PA and Ginsenan PB. Those glycans are built up by L-arabinose, D – galactose, L- rhamnose, D-galacturonic acid and D – glucuronic acid.
Pharmacological and medicinal effects: For a long time, Ginseng is distinguished as a traditional folk medicine. It has huge diverse role in human health for its tonic and adaptogenic behavior providing resistance to the body and improving physical, immunological, and sexual function, vitality and facilitating the antiaging process. The major bioactive compounds in all types of Ginseng are Ginsenosides. There are other metabolites demonstrating various biological actions. The known effects of Ginseng are due to combined action of all the ingredients within it. It is famous for its role in CNS associated disorders too. Additionally, it exerts immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic, antineoplastic, and potent antiinflammatory effect.
Antiinflammatory effect – Studies on antiinflammatory role of Ginseng are mostly due to the involvement of major constituent, Ginsenosides. They work by suppressing the generation of inflammatory cytokines by controlling the activities of their respective signaling pathways of NF – κβ and AP – 1. These transcriptional factors induce the expression of proinflammatory cytokines like TNF – α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IFN-γ. They also help recruit the immune cells at the inflamed sites creating cytotoxic environment to eliminate the invading pathogens by releasing reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen (NO) species. Laboratory studies confirm that G-Rb1 which is a major component in Panax Ginseng inhibits TNF – α production in lipopolysaccharide stimulated macrophages (RAW264.7 macrophage cell line) indicating to be an antiinflammatory agent. It also suppresses the activation of NF – κβ, a chief regulator of inflammation and controller of TNF – α generation. G-Rb1 also inhibits various enzyme kinases involved in inflammatory signaling pathways. As per further interest, it is noticed that intestinal bacterial metabolite of G-Rb-1 which is CK also exerts antiinflammatory effect by reducing inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase – 2 (COX-2) and several more cytokines. CK suppresses the proinflammatory cytokines by downregulating the actions of several kinases (IRK-1, MAPKs, IKK-α) and NF – κβ as shown in the laboratory experiment during LPS stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cell lines. The antiinflammatory actions of CK have been identified using number of experimental models both in vivo and in vitro. The other Ginsenosides (G-Rb2, G-Rd, G-Re, G-Rh2, G-Rg1 etc) also exhibit anti-inflammatory actions by regulating different segments of signaling pathways preventing the generation of inflammatory cytokines. It is universally known that inflammatory responses are the primary causes behind majority metabolic disorders even in case of many neurological ailments. Studies have proven that Ginsenosides exhibit beneficial role regarding preventive and therapeutic actions on neurological diseases. In that regard, G-Re is seen to be particularly helpful to control neural inflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson, Multiple sclerosis, or Alzheimer’s. It is also helpful in controlling epilepsy and mental depression. G-Re works similar way by preventing the generation of proinflammatory mediators like iNOS or COX-2. G-Re also inhibits the expression of IL-1β, TNF – α including the activation of NF – κβ. G-Rh2 is another intestinal bacterial metabolite of Ginsenoside which also exhibits potent antiinflammatory action as seen on LPS / IFN – γ challenged microglial and astroglial cells. It follows almost identical pathways.
Effects on neurological disorders – The diseases of nervous system exhibit several features viz, reducing sensation, movement, consciousness, and autonomic dysfunctions. In that context, the common ones are Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, epilepsy, and mental depression. In recent days Ginsenosides are seen to be much involved in treating those neurological problems since they show both preventive and therapeutic effects which are proven to be effective in animal models. As for example, Rg2 can protect against memory impairment in vascular dementia. The neuroprotective effect of Ginsenosides presumably occurs via antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, and, via estrogen mediated role, regulating NO and NOS also by improving mitochondrial dysfunction. Considering those beneficial aspects Ginsenosides or Ginseng extract are the most valuable components known from any natural sources.
Anti-epilepsy effect – Epilepsy is a chronic disease of brain created due to abnormal discharge of excited neurons leading to frequent seizures. The treatment uses several antiepileptic drugs which is not so efficient to control the problem entirely. Besides, a number of drugs show serious side effects causing other neurological complications. However, use of Ginseng or isolated extract of Ginsenosides, the major active constituents exhibit significant anti-epileptic effect. Using induced model of epilepsy / seizure by administering Kainic acid (KA), Pilocarpine and pentylenetetrazol, it is observed that Ginseng or Ginsenosides exert anticonvulsant effect dosedependently in all three experimental cases. Evidently, Ginsenosides are the active components that provide this antiepileptic action. The results further show that compounds belonging to panaxadiol group is more likely liable for this beneficial action without any neuronal damage. Further, the convulsions created due to epilepsy attack is efficiently blocked by few other Ginsenoside derivatives. In that category, G-Rb1, G-Rb2, G-Rb3 and, G-Rd exhibit significant anticonvulsant actions in experimental animal model.
Additionally, intracellular Ca+2 concentration is an important indicator relating to any neurological problems. In case of epilepsy, the level of intracellular Ca+2 is increased considerably. The Ginsenoside fraction or Rg3 singularly can inhibit the effect efficiently as noticed in the case of in vitro model of using Mg+2 to elevate the intracellular Ca+2. Ginsenosides modulate Ca+2 level for its inhibitory role by binding to N-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. The compounds also lessen oxidative stress within synaptosomes and lowers synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic nerve terminals. It is further identified that anti-epileptic actions of Ginsenosides also occurs via the activation of adenosine – 2a (A2A) receptors.
Antidepressant effect – Depression is a neuropsychiatric disorder that leads to sleep disturbances or deprivation, suicidal tendencies and other characteristics created in mind. Clinically, monoamine oxidase inhibitors are normally prescribed to control the problem. Studies show that Ginsenoside, G-Rb3 can considerably lower the depression. Besides Rb3, Rb1, Rg1, Rg3 and CK also show antidepressant property by modulating intracellular signaling mechanisms. Ginsenoside Re decreases tyrosine hydroxylase expression in locus coeruleus but increases Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA expression within hippocampus. Further, Ginsenosides reduces the levels of IL-β, IL-6, TNF – α and few other cytokines. It is thus therefore hypothesized that antiinflammatory actions of Ginsenosides might play role to treat antidepression along with other neurological disorders.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) – Alzheimer’s is known to affect the CNS leading to loss of memory and motor functions as well. Normally, mental deterioration is frequently observed among the elderly population exhibiting dementia (50 – 60 % cases). The affected areas of brain are cerebral cortex, locus coeruleus, nucleus basalis and hippocampus. The major pathological characteristics that are shown is the extracellular deposits of amyloid β – proteins derived from the amyloid precursor within senile plaques also the intracellular formation of neurofibrillary tangles having abnormally phosphorylated microtubule associated (τ ) proteins which causes the loss of neuronal synapses and pyramidal neurons. Ginseng is used for a long time for the prevention of AD. Uniquely, it is observed that heat processed Ginseng acts better compared to the raw herb. The protective action of M1 usually generated by the action of gut bacteria on PPD type Ginsenosides have protective role on cognitive functions. In the case of experimental induction of AD by the intracerebroventricular injection of peptide (Aβ25 – 35) fragment of amyloid β – proteins in animals, the impairment of spatial memory is seen to be improved by the administration of M1 and Rb1 Ginsenosides. Experiments on transgenic mice shows that use of Rg1 improves long term memory. The compound produces not effect on food intake or body weight. Further it inhibits the concentration of C-terminal fragments, p-Tau and β – amyloid 1- 42 in AD mice. It also enables to activate BDNF – TrkB signaling pathway alleviating the expression of AD related proteins.
Effect on Parkinson’s disorder (PD) – The commonly noticed feature of PD is disorder during movement. The apparent cause is owing to the loss or deletion of dopaminergic neurons. Preclinical studies indicate that Rg1 acts as a potential neuro-protectant in neurotoxin (MPTP, 1- methyl – 4 – phenyl – 1, 2, 3,6 tetrahydro pyridine) induced PD in experimental animals. Studies also show that Rg1 improves the level of Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) as well as its mRNA expression in substantia nigra (SN) where the damage is observed. Further works indicate that the neuroprotective function of Rg1 follows via its antiinflammatory, anti-apoptosis and antioxidative actions. The multiple beneficial roles of Rg1 makes it a potent neuroprotectant to prevent PD which is noticed during various clinical trial.
Effect on erectile dysfunction, sperm count and motility – Ginseng is historically famous for its efficient role in reproductive biology.Either Ginseng or the extract enriched with Ginsenosides enhance the libido and copulatory performances significantly. The action is not due to the changes of hormone secretions rather by the direct interaction of Ginsenosides with central nervous system (CNS) and gonadal tissues. Experiments have proven that Ginsenosides facilitates penile erection by directly influencing the vasodilation as well as simultaneous vaso-relaxation of penile corpus cavernosum. The erectile effect of Ginseng is actually mediated by the release of Nitric oxide (NO) from the endothelial cells and perivascular nerves. The presence of Rg1in extract is identified being responsible for the production of NO by glucocorticoid receptor dependent mechanisms while acting as an agonist. Binding of the compound enhances the intracellular cGMP accumulation that subsequently causes generation and release of NO leading to its accumulation inside corpus cavernosum. Release of NO relaxes the smooth muscle allowing more blood to enter the organ, corpus cavernosum causing erection. The constituents Rb1, Rb2, Ro and several others do not produce this direct effect. A bunch of neurotransmitters like, Dopamine (DA) for desire, acetylcholine (ACh) for arousal, and GABA for orgasm are known to be intimately involved in this libido effect. The compound, Re increases extracellular DA and ACh as seen in the rat brain. On the other hand, Rb1 releases ACh which is associated with enhancing the choline uptake at nerve endings. It is further noticed that Ginseng extract modulates GABAergic neurotransmission within rat brainstem neurons. Using the radioligand binding studies it is shown that Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Re, Rf, and Rg1 act as agonists to GABAA receptor whereas on the Rc only acts as agonist to GABAB receptor. These facts indicate that Ginseng might control pituitary-gonadal axis both at neuronal and hormonal levels. Moreover, Ginseng is also seen to have positive role on spermatogenesis. The rise of sperm count is probably due to stimulatory action of Ginseng on DNA / protein synthesis in testes. Recent studies on human shows that Ginseng increases the sperm count as also its motility, significantly. Rc and Rb2 are identified to enhance the sperm count. The effect is seen to be mediated via the induction of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity and subsequent rise of NO production. NO is seen to be closely related to sperm function. Interestingly, Re facilitates human sperm capacitation and also acrosome reaction (helping sperms to penetrate through the protective coats of eggs for fusion of both the haploid nuclei into same cell creating diploid genome) via the increase of intracellular NO generations. Ginseng also helps preserving the ejaculated sperms. Rg1 is particularly involved in that process.
Effect on cancers – Studies in vivo and in vitro have widely proven the chemoprotective and chemopreventive role of Ginsenosides. Those are excellent choice for anticancer drugs due to its low toxicity and antiangiogenic actions. Korean Ginseng, named Jobokasanam is seen highly cytotoxic to many cancer cell lines. The active components are, Rh1, K, G-F2, G-Rp1 and G-Rg3 derivatives. Rg-3 is noticed to have significant anti-tumerogenic, anti-angiogenic, anti-fatigue actions. It also induces apoptosis very efficiently. Rg-3 having the isomers 20 (R) – Rg3 and 20 (S) – Rg3 differing only in the orientation of – OH group at C-20 position are capable of suppressing the tumor metastasis. The compounds prevent the progression of ovarian cancer cells inducing apoptosis when tested both in vivo and in vitro. Further, 20 (R) – Rg3 prevents gall bladder cancer by activating p53 pathway. Ginsenoside Rk1 represses tumor progression of HepG-2 cells while arresting the cell cycle at G1 phase. Rg1 regresses highly malignant breast cancer cells, MCF-7 implanted in mice. Further, the cytotoxicity of Ginseng extract on breast cancer cells like MDA-MB-231, MCF-7 and others possibly are due to down regulation of Bcl-2 and upregulation of Bax protein, eventually causing the apoptosis. Recently it is noticed that PPD derived Ginsenosides exhibit more cytotoxic property. Rg3, Rh2 potently suppress both survival and invasiveness also promoting apoptosis of adenocarcinoma (A549) and lung squamous carcinoma (SK- MES-1). PPT derived Ginsenosides are efficient to arrest and prevent the progression of several lung cancers. The saponin, 20 – O- β – D- glucopyranosyl- 20 (S) protopanaxadiol exerts apoptosis in human colon cancers while increasing cytoplasmic Ca+2 also decreasing the cell viability. Considering the overall aspects Ginseng extract or else the isolated fraction containing Ginsenosides have potential anticancer property toward various malignancies. Although individual components are also able in a great extent.
Effect on cardiovascular diseases – Ginseng is vastly used for individuals having cardiovascular problems like hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, or some other cardiac diseases. Usually, Cardiac ischemia is a common ailment often noticed among many subjects. It is primarily caused by myocardial injury leading to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In that situations treatment with Ginseng helps restore the coronary blood flow bringing to normal level. Experiments verifies that Ginsenoside Rg2 and Rh1can reduce the oxidation induced damages of erythrocyte membrane. Additionally, polysaccharides of Ginseng provide protection to the mitochondria. The level of antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase are also considerably enhanced by Ginseng. Ginsenosides enhances the production of 6-keto-prostaglandin F1α (PGF1α), a stable Prostacyclin (PGI2) analog whereas simultaneously reduces the peroxidation of lipid. Further PGF1α exerts beneficial role on cardiac problems. Ginsenosides reduce ROS toxicity by stimulating the synthesis of NO. By releasing NO human aortic endothelium can regulate the blood vessel tone and arterial stiffness which is considerably improved. In that way, Ginseng modulates the vascular function. Additionally, Rg1 can protect cardiomyocytes from the oxidative injury due to antioxidation mechanism and intracellular Ca+2 modulation. Ginseng has been seen to inhibit the platelet aggregation. The in vivo antithrombotic effect and ex vivo anti-platelet models may correlate with its ability due to NO production. It could be hypothesized that the protective effect on arterial thrombosis in vivo might be due to antiplatelet actions rather than the blood coagulation event. It is further noticed that dihydro ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits platelet aggregation by modulating the down-stream signaling molecules like cAMP and related kinases. Several other Ginsenosides (Rg6, F4, Rk3, Rs4, Rs3 and Rs5) are tested for their role on platelet aggregation induced by ADP, collagen, arachidonic acid, and thromboxane A2 analog U46619. Only Rs3, Rs4, and Rs5 which are acetylated (- CH3CO) show mild inhibitory effect in presence of these stimulators. Experiments establishes that potent antithrombotic effect offered by the Ginseng extract or fraction containing mixture of Ginsenosides is mediated by the activation of P13K/AKT- eNOS signaling and subsequent production of NO. In brief, the major possibility behind antithrombotic effect of Ginseng in vivo is due to anti-platelet action rather than the effect of anti-coagulation. In that respect, intake of Ginseng could be beneficial for the individuals having high risks of thrombosis and cardio-vascular disease. Considering the overall aspects, Ginseng has beneficial role on cardiovascular problems like hypertension, cardiac diseases, hyperlipidemia, oxidative stress, and management of ions. The active components are Ginsenosides. They exert numerous effects eg, inhibiting ROS production, stimulating NO generation, improving blood circulation, enhancing vasomotor tone, and regulating the lipid profile. Although many of the questions regarding Ginseng remain unanswered.
Antidiabetic effect – For a long time Ginseng extract is used to treat or managing diabetes particularly the type2 variety. Among the other constituents, Ginsenosides are identified to be majorly responsible for controlling the disease. Besides extracts from Asian or American Ginseng, most studies on Ginsenosides are performed using Rb1, Rg1 and Re. The overall studies on animals and human indicate that Ginseng is quite able to modulate insulin production, secretion, metabolism, as well as the uptake of glucose. Besides root, extract of Ginseng berries is also very potent in controlling diabetes since they are loaded with required Ginsenosides. It lowers blood glucose significantly both in fasting as well as postprandial condition especially for the obese subjects. Human studies show that the extract of berry is good for controlling type-2 diabetes. Numerous studies on diabetes using Ginseng have proven that it can modulate blood glucose level by improving the function of pancreatic β – cells also increasing secretion of insulin. The berry extract is seen much efficient in that regard. It has been further noticed that PPD type Ginsenoside like Rb1 lowers decreased insulin sensitivity and elevated blood glucose due to fatty diet in case of type – 2 diabetic mice. However, in Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, PPT type Ginsenoside like Rg1lowers the insulin resistance and also blood glucose improving liver function and lipid profile indicating potential for adjuvant therapy in type-2 diabetes having fatty liver problem. Rg3 the other major metabolite produced by heat raises the GLP-1 secretion with highest efficiency. In vivo experiments show that Rg3 significantly raises Glucagon like peptide – 1 (GLP-1) and subsequent insulin level also in the circulation. Considering the overall aspects Rg3 is thought to be the major active anti-diabetic ingredient in Ginseng. Since other Ginsenosides also show considerable hypoglycemic actions, it is presumed that others may undergo hydrolysis to Rg3 inside the gastrointestinal tract to exert the pharmacological effect.<p class=”has-drop-cap has-text-align-justify” value=”<amp-fit-text layout=”fixed-height” min-font-size=”6″ max-font-size=”72″ height=”80″><strong>Antioxidant action –</strong> Studies in human indicate that Ginseng extract ( 1 – 2 g / day) if administered for about a month-long period significantly reduces the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in circulation. Additionally, the total glutathione content and glutathione reductase are also considerably improved. This certainly indicates that Ginseng have antioxidant property. Further, it enhances the antioxidant defense mechanism so, in that capacity Ginseng can act as a potential antioxidant supplement. Treatment with Ginseng as dietary supplement shows numerous health benefits particularly against oxidative damages as shown in the case of isolated LDL oxidation, ischemic neuron dysfunction, and reperfusion injury at heart. The Ginsenosides are identified to be majorly liable for that act for scavenging the free radicals also enabling to induce antioxidant enzymes. The actions of flavonoids and poly-acetylenes in that act is also noticeable. Animal experiments indicate that Ginseng supplementation in diet enables to prevent age associated increase of oxidant production and oxidative protein damages. In that way, its consumption reduces any age-related impairments.Antioxidant action – Studies in human indicate that Ginseng extract ( 1 – 2 g / day) if administered for about a month-long period significantly reduces the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in circulation. Additionally, the total glutathione content and glutathione reductase are also considerably improved. This certainly indicates that Ginseng have antioxidant property. Further, it enhances the antioxidant defense mechanism so, in that capacity Ginseng can act as a potential antioxidant supplement. Treatment with Ginseng as dietary supplement shows numerous health benefits particularly against oxidative damages as shown in the case of isolated LDL oxidation, ischemic neuron dysfunction, and reperfusion injury at heart. The Ginsenosides are identified to be majorly liable for that act for scavenging the free radicals also enabling to induce antioxidant enzymes. The actions of flavonoids and poly-acetylenes in that act is also noticeable. Animal experiments indicate that Ginseng supplementation in diet enables to prevent age associated increase of oxidant production and oxidative protein damages. In that way, its consumption reduces any age-related impairments.