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Artemisia Indica / Damanaka (Sanskrit) /Dhavanam / Nagadhona (Hindi)

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General features: Artemisia indica (AI), also known as Indian wormwood, is a widespread flowering plant in the Asteraceae family of the Artemisia genus. The name originates from the Greek word “Artemis,” meaning “healthy.” In recent days, any species of this genus is well-known for its antimalarial activities. The genus holds about 400 species. Despite its distinctive medicinal role, in an overall perspective, AI is considered a spice. This aromatic medicinal herb is commonly called Dhavanam, derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Damanaka’ (meaning ‘able to suppress/prevent’). The plant is mostly perennial, although a few annual varieties sparsely exist. It freely spreads using its rhizomatous root stock, producing numerous branched stems. The plant can reach 3–5 ft in height. The flowers are small in size and aromatic in character. The leaves are not so small and finely divided like sagebrush, but fairly wide and long. It grows in the wild but is now cultivated for its medicinal uses, particularly in China and several Southeast Asian countries [1]. Its natural habitat is in Asia, including China, India, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, and Malaysia, and it even grows at higher altitudes (~5000 ft) in Nepal. A large variety of its genus, including AI, grows in the Russian steppe and its central Asian regions, particularly Kazakhstan [2]. AI prefers to grow in well-drained, slightly alkaline soil drenched in sunlight. The dried herbs are generally long-lasting and predominantly aromatic, primarily utilized for medicinal purposes; however, they are also commonly prepared in culinary contexts and often consumed with barley soups.  In many Asian nations, the young leaves are crushed and added to sticky rice during cooking to flavor and color, or even in other cooked foods for the distinctive deep spicy flavor and mild bitter taste [3]. Its essential oil serves as an effective larvicide and insecticide, while dried flowers and leaves are traditionally used as incense for their pleasant aroma [4]. The most important aspect of AI or any of its related species of the Artemisia genus is their antimalarial role in curing even the drug-resistant variety. The active component is Artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, sesquiterpene lactones with a peroxide bridge within the ring, which are mainly responsible for the antimalarial action, which was a Nobel-winning discovery in 2015 [5].

History of use: In addition to its spicy role, AI has a rich history in Asian folk medicine. It is extremely popular, particularly in China, India, Thailand, Malaysia, and other Southeast Asian countries. In Ayurveda, the ancient Indian Apothecary, the plant has been named as ‘Damanaka’ and is worshipped in many remote rural regions for its healing ability, beneficial for female health, and other diverse uses like regulating fevers (including malaria fevers), menstrual problems, uterine relaxant, emengogue, as well as for any anti-inflammatory purposes. It is further applied to stomach pain, colic, and liver or spleen problems. In many rural semi tribal communities, AI acts as a ghost repellent. Its flowers have a significant religious role in the Hindu religion, inhabited in Madhya Pradesh and neighboring regions worship Lord Vishnu and Shiva on the 14th day of the bright half of Chaitra. In medieval Europe, it was considered as “Mother of herbs” and used for spiritual and medical protection. It was believed that it could remove the evil spirits, providing vitality, possibly for its medicinal role. The dried plants were burnt as incense to ward off the insects and ghosts. The Chumash, a native American tribe near Santa Barbara, California, weaves threads from the leaves to cauterize wounds or uses them as a remedy for poison oak contamination [6,7]. In total consideration, AI is an important botanical medicinal herb that has spiritual significance [8].

Folk medicinal use: The leaves and stems have anthelmintic, antiseptic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stomachic properties [9]. An infusion prepared from the plant is used to treat nervous and spasmodic conditions, asthma, and some brain diseases. That infusion also helps restore appetite. In Nepal, it is also used for controlling diarrhea, dysentery, and abdominal pain. The leaf juice cures conjunctivitis. The roots have an antiseptic role, and also the tonic prepared from them helps recover from kidney problems [10]. The decoction prepared by the hydro-alcoholic solvent is often employed to treat asthma, influenza, insomnia, and malaria. It is also effective in controlling migraine, hypertension, rheumatism, beriberi, diarrhea, nerve disorder, hypertension, jaundice, and tuberculosis. In Central and South Asian nations, it is largely used to treat malaria, and artemisinin is the active anti-malarial agent [11].

Phytochemical ingredients and their respective biological role: This medicinal herb is heavily enriched with versatile phytochemicals, which can be categorized mainly as terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic acids.

Among the terpenoids, Artemisia ketone, a monoterpene, is present as a major one, exhibiting strong antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activities as well as possessing a potent antimalarial role [12]. The others are α- and β-thujone, which are toxic by nature, and acts as GABAA receptor antagonists, causing convulsions [13], germacrene – B and D, a sesquiterpene having antimicrobial and insecticidal properties, also acts as an insect pheromone [14], borneol, a toxic, insect repellant and produces cooling sensation like menthol in mouth[15], camphor, a medicinal component acts as a decongestant and anti-inflammatory ingredient [16], 1,8-cineole or eucalyptol, a flavoring agent also used as cough suppressant and mouthwash, it is also insecticidal by nature [17], β-pinene, a flavoring compound [18], caryophyllene, a flavoring agent and an agonist of the cannabinoid receptor, CB2 [19].

The major flavonoids in AI are rutin, quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, and their glycosides. The flavonoids have an immense beneficial role in human health. It exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and disease-prevention properties, lowers blood pressure, improves brain function, protects from cancers, regulates diabetes, and improves cardiovascular health [20].

The main phenolic acids are caffeic, chlorogenic, ferulic, vanillic, and gallic acids. They act as antioxidants and anti-inflammatories, helping prevent cell damage, heart disease, high blood pressure, cancer, and diabetes, and promoting gut health [21].   

Among the sesquiterpenes and their lactones, the most important are artemisinin, absinthin, and psilostachyin A and B, and vulagrin. All of them have shown various medicinal roles, like antimalarial, leishmanicidal, molluscicidal, and antineoplastic properties, but the antimalarial role is highly prominent in the case of artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin [22].

There are a few coumarin derivatives in AI. Coumarins offer several health benefits, acting as anti-inflammatories, anticoagulants, antioxidants, anticancer, and antimicrobial agents. They also lower the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular, and neurological disorders, and help improve blood flow [23].

AI also synthesizes some alkaloids, and they are rupestine, lycoctonine, pyrrolizidine, purines, indole, piperidine, pyrrolidine, and others. They exhibit hepatoprotective, local anesthetic, anti-parasitic, and β-galactosidase activities. Those alkaloids can be used in treating angina pectoris, opening up blocked arteries, inhibiting HIV protease, melanin synthesis, carbonic anhydrase, and DNA polymerase β. In addition to those, there are also some other nitrogenous derivatives [24].

The essential oil in AI is mainly composed of Germacrene D, 1,8-cineole, β-pinene, sabinene, Cis-thujone, β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, α-humulene, and davanone [25]. However, its contents always vary from place to place. The extracted oil from the aerial parts has shown antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and potent antioxidant properties [26]. Besides its cytotoxicity towards broad-spectrum bacteria, the oil exhibits significant anti-cancer actions against several cancer cell lines, THP-1 (leukemia, IC50 ~ 10 µg/ml), A-549 (lung, IC50 ~ 25 µg/ml), HEP-2(liver, IC50 ~ 15.5 µg/ml), and colon (Caco-2, IC50 ~ 19.5 µg/ml). The effect is seen to be dose-dependent [26].

Pharmacological effects: The plant has a broad range of pharmacological activities, among them the antimalarial role due to sesquiterpene artemisinin has earned the plant widespread fame. Although it is not the only antimalarial compound synthesized in the plant.

Malaria and the effect of artemisinin – In 1979, clinical studies revealed that artemisia extracts can effectively cure malaria fever, fighting against the parasite. The identified compound is artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone featuring a peroxyl bridge (-O-O-) uniquely positioned within the C-7 ring. The discovery of this life-saving drug, artemisinin, brought a Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 2015 [27]. In 1980, Swissmedic, the Swiss agency for therapeutic products, approved its use in combination with others; therefore marketed it as an artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) in 1999 [https://www.mmv.org/]. The medication is particularly effective against chloroquine-resistant, vicious multidrug-resistant P. falciparum, the most deadly malaria parasite, which is treated with a WHO-approved first-line therapy. Considering the molecular structure function, a lactone ring is formed when two carbon atoms are connected through a peroxy linkage, which is the key feature behind its antimalarial role [28]. Based on this notion, several efficient semi-synthetic derivatives of artemisinin, like dihydroartemisinin, artemether, and artesunate, have been created. Studies have further shown that Platinum (IV)-artesunate indicates more therapeutic potential in this regard [29].

Artemisinin prevents malaria by interrupting the life cycle of the parasite that has already entered the circulating erythrocytes, blocking the production of merozoites in affected red blood cells. During the intra-erythrocytic asexual reproduction cycle, the malaria parasite consumes the host cell’s hemoglobin, releasing a heterocyclic organic monomeric compound, α-hematin/protoporphyrin. This prooxidant generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to the formation of toxic hematin/ferriprotophyrin. The parasite detoxifies hematin, converting it to chemically inert β-hematin crystals named hemozoin [30]. Further, the binding of free hematin disrupts the cell membrane, causing the lysis of the host erythrocyte [31]. Thus, the malaria parasite consumes hemoglobin, producing toxic free heme that eventually undergoes conversion to hemozoin crystals. Its accumulation lyses the red cells, which in turn is taken up by the macrophages, activating the immune system, releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α through NLRP3 inflammasome, showing the malaria symptom [32]. The unstable Fe+2  in the cytoplasm of the parasite and including the iron freed by the heme decomposition, activates the artemisinin molecule, generating its free radical form; the step is crucial in the antimalarial activity. The free radicals of oxygen and carbon are produced at a time during the production of oxygen free radicals. In this event, the peroxy bond within the artemisinin molecule undergoes disruption by the Fe, leading to the creation of free radicals of oxygen and carbon/activated artemisinin through the rearrangement of electrons [33]. The activated artemisinin then prevents the normal functioning of the targeting proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, causing the death of the parasite [34]. So, in overall consideration, the presence of the peroxy linkage is presumably the key feature behind its antimalarial effect [28].

Fig – The antimalarial mechanism of artemisinin. Heme and iron produced by hemozoin activate artemisinin, creating free radicals. The activated artemisinin disrupts the physiological functions of Plasmodium by targeting proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, leading to the parasites’ death. The asterisk signifies the activated form of ART. Abbreviations: Art, artemisinin. [Zheng D, Liu T, Yu S et al. Tropical Med Infect Dis. 2024, 9, 223 – 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed9090223].

Anti-inflammatory effect – Besides antimalarial effects, AI exerts strong anti-inflammatory actions by inhibiting the generation of pro-inflammatory mediators, NO, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and PGE-2 in activated immune cells, whereas subsequently promoting the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10, modulating immune cells activation, influencing pathways, NF-κβ, and inflammasomes [35]. The studies are conducted using the ethanol extract of the plant on LPS-challenged, cultured neuroblastoma (SH-Sy5Y) cell line. Using the leaf extract, studies performed in mice have also shown its potent anti-inflammatory role [36]. In addition to artemisinin, other components of AI, such as anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignans, and phenolics, also contribute to its anti-inflammatory effects [35].

Antioxidant effects – Owing to the large presence of phenolics, flavonoids, and essential oils having versatile terpenes and other key components, the AI plant extract shows strong antioxidant activity, enabling it to scavenge the free radicals. The effect is measured by following the scavenging action on generated free radicals of DPPH, hydrogen peroxide, and nitric oxide, showing its preventive role against oxidative stress. The methanolic extract shows the highest, followed by the hydro-ethanolic extraction. Although the 70% ethanolic extract shows better potency. The only aqueous extract is much less potent in that act[37]. Scavenging free radicals prevents cell damage and supports healthy liver and kidney function.

Effects on CNS – The plant exhibits a significant impact on the CNS. The presence of several triterpenes like ursolic, carnosol, and oleanolic acid seems to be liable for its anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, anti-epileptic, and antidepressant properties, subsequently exerting neuroprotective actions, which could be associated with its antioxidant behavior. The phytochemicals ursolic, carnosol, and oleanolic acid of the plant affect neural transmission by modulating the GABAA receptor, the major inhibitory system in the CNS, acting like benzodiazepines, while imposing calmness, preventing seizures, and lifting mood. The anticonvulsant effect has been tested on animals experiencing pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures. The plant extract reduces anxiety in animals facing the elevated plus maze and light/dark box experiment. The antidepressant activity has been assayed by using forced swim tests. Its antioxidant potential seemingly provides neuroprotection from neuroinflammation, preventing neurodegenerative diseases and stroke. Researches mostly highlight the potential of the plant for neurological benefits, chiefly by modulating inhibitory neurotransmission and simultaneously providing pro-cognitive benefits owing to its antioxidant role [38,39,40]. Oxidative stress is often known to play a significant role in the initiation of epilepsy, recurrent seizures, inflicting neural damage, and cognitive disorders. The association of neuronal apoptosis and epileptogenesis has been identified in studies, but its exact cause remains unclear. Thus, in addition to triterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and several other phyto-components might be responsible for the overall effects on the CNS and its associated neuronal role.

Antidiabetic effect – The plant exhibits substantial antidiabetic ability while reducing blood glucose, improving insulin content, simultaneously protecting the pancreatic β-cells, also lowering the lipid levels in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic animal model [41]. The bioactive phytocompounds are identified to be terpenoids, flavonoids, and alkaloids, which also show anti-hyperglycemic, antioxidant activities like the commercially available drug glyburide. The plant extract improves the kidney and liver function as well, verified by measuring the creatinine, SGPT, and SGOT levels under diabetic conditions, thereby indicating its protective ability against any metabolic damage [42]. Studies further indicate that AI also exerts inhibitory effects on enzymes such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase. The action also provides additional input in controlling blood sugar [43].

Anticancer effect – Recent evidence indicates that artemisinin and its related components, synthesized in the plant, AI can be applicable for the treatment of aggressive cancers with the least drug resistance. Uniquely, those components often exhibit synergism in the presence of various recently applicable anticancer drugs, adding no extra toxicity to normal tissues. Artemisinin, dihydroartemisinin, and artesunate have shown strong anticancer actions against human breast, prostate, ovarian, pancreatic, and lung cancers [44]. The studies indicate that the mechanisms followed are apoptosis, cell cycle arrest at G0/G1, associated with oxidative stress. The primary action that occurs is the interaction between the endoperoxide linkage of the artemisinin molecule and the intracellular iron of the cancer cells. In general, cancer cells significantly store intracellular free iron for their rapid cell proliferation. The reaction of intracellular iron and the endoperoxide link of artemisinin generates cytotoxic ROS, inflicting oxidative damage to cellular DNA, proteins, and lipids, triggering apoptosis or cell death [45].

Presumably, these phyto-compounds regulate the major intracellular factors like NF-κβ, survivin, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, BMI-, and NOXA (a proapoptotic protein induced by phorbol ester that triggers programmed cell death in cancers), which influence drug response, interaction, resistance, and other associated signaling pathways, including STAT3 and HIF-1α [46].

Antibacterial effect – The extract and essential oil extracted from AI show potent antibacterial activity, inhibiting both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, E coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa while acting as a natural antibacterial agent usable in food and medicines. Besides the antimalarial components, the other active compounds are present in the essential oil. They prevent bacterial growth and lower the survival by disrupting the bacterial cell membrane, which results in K+ ion leakage, reducing the survival of the bacteria. As per the traditional uses, aqueous extract also inhibits Staph aureus, D pneumoniae, and Vib cholera. The major active ingredients are terpenes like artemisia ketone, germacrene B, and borneol [47,48].

Culinary uses: The plant even has tremendous medicinal properties, is considered to be a spice, used to flavor foods or beverages. The fresh young leaves are occasionally used in the cooking of rice dishes to provide flavor or color. Besides rice, it is also consumed with barley also for its flavor. Despite its slightly bitter taste, the tender shoots are dipped in batter and fried in oil and eaten as a vegetable. After rigorous pounding, the fresh young buds before flowering are added as a seasoning to the meat or fish, which is noticed in some of the people of the Asian nations. The dried leaves are used to prepare tea or infusions. AI is edible and non-toxic even at large doses [49].

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