Lavender (Lavandula): Herbal History, Uses, and Benefits

General features:  The commonly called Lavender has the original name ‘Lavandula’. This herb is a perennial flowering plant of the mint / Lamiaceae family of the Lavandula genus with 47 species. It is native to the Mediterranean and Arabian Peninsula. However, it also grows in parts of Africa, the Adriatic coast, the Balkans, the Canary Islands, and even the Indian subcontinent. It has recently been commercially cultivated in the northern regions of India like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu, and Kashmir. The plant prefers a temperate climate with low rainfall and plenty of sunshine. Normally, it is farmed as an ornamental plant for a garden or landscape. But its other major uses are for culinary reasons as a herb, or a source of essential oil extracted for cosmetics, and traditional medicines commonly practiced in Germany, Eastern Europe, Northern Africa, the Mediterranean, as well as Western Asia. For centuries, it was a remedy for digestive problems, headaches, or relieving grief, and stress [1]. It is a well-known herb prominent for its pleasant aroma. Additionally, it exhibits antiseptic and antimicrobial properties keeping the insects at bay. Dried flowers are frequently used in the home to perfume linen for their strong pleasant aromatic odor and distance away moths and insects. The smell of Lavender oil in the room can remove flies. English lavender has the botanical name Lavandula angustifolia which was formerly called Lavandula officinalis, although native to the Mediterranean, it is the most common species which are mostly grown for medicinal and various other purposes. Lavender is a herbaceous perennial plant or shrub that grows upright to about 24 inches. The rootstock is woody branches, rod-like, leafy green shoots. A silvery down covers the gray-green narrow leaves, oblong and tapered, attached at the base and curled spirally. The shapes of leaves are quite diverse by nature [2]. They are toothed or pinnate or occasionally multiple pinnate and dissected. The leaves are covered with fine hairs or indumentum that contain essential oil [2]. The flowers are confined in whorls and held on spikes. They produce colored bracts at the tips of inflorescences. The colors could be blue, violet, lilac, blackish purple, or even yellowish. The corolla is tubular with five lobes [3]. The oil in the blue-violet flowers offers fragrance. They are arranged in spirals of 6 – 10 blossoms [4]. The plant flourishes in dry, well-drained, gravelly soils with pH 6 – 8 and under continuing sunlight. It has a long germination process (14 – 28 days) and matures within 120 days. It needs no fertilizer but requires good ventilation. High humidity can spoil due to fungal infection [5]. In many places, it is also considered to be an invasive species because of its uncontrolled growth as a wild plant. Commercially the herb is grown mainly to produce lavender oil, which is mostly the English species, Lavandula angustifolia. The oil is normally used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, or any topical applications.  Besides fresh herbs, the oil is also used in confectionaries. The USDA considers it generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for human consumption [6].

History of Lavender use: This pleasant-smelling herb has been known worldwide for more than a millennium. It was initially identified in the Mediterranean wilderness and afterward cultivated for numerous household uses. Nearly thirty different species and 300 cultivars are cultivated. Among them, English Lavender or Lavandula angustifolia is the most prominent one, and to a lesser extent Lavandula stoeches, the Spanish lavender is also used. Recently, a natural hybrid variety has been identified in France which is now grown extensively. Historically, Romans named it ‘Lavander’ which presumably comes from the Latin word ‘Lavare’ meaning ‘to wash’ or from the word ‘livendulo’ meaning ‘livid or bluish’. The Greeks named it Nardus after the city “Naardus” in recent Syria. The plant was also mentioned in the Bible. In India, people called it Spikenard pointing to the shape of the flowers. In ancient Egypt, Lavender was used as an embalming cosmetic agent, particularly for the royal families of the Pharaoh, high priests, or very wealthy persons since during their living they enjoyed it as cosmetics, massaging, or any medicinal reasons. Lavender has been traced to the tomb/ mommy of King Tutankhamun (1341 – 1323 BC). During mommification, those precious unguents are spread on the heads which on melting would cover the bodies with perfume. In the later period, ancient Greeks also learnt to use lavender as perfume or aromatics. In the 3rd century BC, the famed Greek physician Theophrastus described the use of the healing ability of its scents in “Concerning Odors”. Around that time, another Greek philosopher Diogenes, popularly known as ‘Diogenes the Cynic’ and the founder of Cynicism used to anoint his feet saying, “When you anoint your head with perfume, it flies away in the air and birds will get the benefit, whilst if I rub it on my feet, it will envelop my whole body and gracefully ascend to my nose”. In the 5th century BC, Anacreon, the Greek lyric poet suggested anointing breasts since it is the seat of the heart. After the Greeks, Romans also identified the healing roles of lavender as an antiseptic as well as its use to deter insects, also often used during washing or baths. Lavender was branded among the Romans as a herb of love. Cleopatra (70 BC – 30 BC) used lavender to seduce Julius Caesar and Mark Antony [7]. The healing use of lavender was first recorded by the famous Greek physician and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides known as the father of pharmacognosy and the author of De Materia Medica in 77 AD. He wrote about this herb and its medicinal properties in De Materia Medica. He mentioned that if consumed internally it relieves indigestion, headaches, and sore throats. Lavender could be used externally to clean wounds, and burns, and treat skin problems. Roman soldiers used it to dress war wounds. Its extract was often sprayed to sweeten the environment, fumigate patients’ rooms, or burn as incense for religious occasions. The Roman naturalist and philosopher, Pliny the Elder (23 – 79AD) recorded its benefits in helping menstrual problems, upset stomachs, kidney problems, jaundice, dropsy, and insect bites. The Roman elites used lavender oil on their hair, bodies, clothes, and baths. They even moisturized the penis with lavender oil before coitus to gain extra pleasure. The women used to hang a lavender bunch next to the beds to incite passion and sexual desire. They often spread on the body and oil inside the vagina before sexual performances for the additional pleasure of its pleasant smell. Around the 7th century AD, Arab physicians brought it to Spain and thereafter it was distributed all over Europe. The greatest-known Arab physician Abu Ali Sina widely known as Avicenna (980 – 1037AD) recorded the healing power of lavender and domesticated it in Arabia [7].

During the Middle Ages, lavender use was considerably reduced except inside monasteries by the monks and nuns, who copied and hid the knowledge of its medicinal and other values. Around the period of the Holy Roman Empire (812 AD) monasteries were charged for growing lavender as a medicinal plant. In England, lavender was listed as a precious herb and grown in the famous Merton Abbey thus eventually becoming the center of its production in Mitchum, England. According to the record (1301AD) of Merton Priory, lavender was used then to raise money for King Edward I. During the Tudor era of England, after the dissolution of monasteries by King Henry VIII, the lavender use experienced a reawakening and common people started using it for various purposes. Queen Elizabeth was extremely fond of lavender. She frequently used it as a perfume to help her migraine relief and frequently put it in her tea. She encouraged people to raise lavender farms. As per English history, Henrietta Marie, wife of King Charles I (who was beheaded) brought lavender to the English court from France, thus initiating its use as perfume, soaps, potpourri, and bath wash. Charles VI (1368 – 1422 AD) the psychotic king of France used lavender to stuff his seat cushion. At about that time, it was noticed that lavender oil can remove lice and fleas. The emperor of France, Louis XIV (1643 – 1715 AD) loved to bathe in lavender-scented water. In the 16th century, lavender was considered a reliable protection against infection. Around the 17th century, lavender and its oil generated a huge interest in people. It was due to the works of famous English herbalists John Gerard (1545 – 1612 AD and author of “The Herball”), John Parkinson (1567 – 1650 AD, Herbalist, botanist, and apothecary, who served King Charles-I), and Nicholas Culpepper (1616 – 1654 AD, botanist, herbalist, and physician, author of “Complete Herbal”). In 16th century France, lavender was considered an effective protection against infections even cholera and plague during 1665. Later Queen Victoria (1819 – 1901 AD), was also a great admirer of lavender. So, lavender became fashionable among English ladies. They used to buy from street sellers who bought from Mitcham. Mitcham, a London suburb became the center place of lavender oil production. Eventually, English lavender was spread all over the world by the colonists. In the US, Shakers (a Protestant sect that originated in 1747 and arrived in the US in 1774) started to grow lavender commercially and therefore became a popular gift and medicine. The flowering herb has a long history and is popular to be enjoyed in many ways worldwide even in this 21st century [7].

Popular medicinal uses of lavender especially aromatherapy: The extracted oil from little blue-violet flowers of lavender offers a sweet, pleasant fragrance. The extracted essential oil is used for numerous medicinal purposes including aromatherapy. It provides ample beneficial actions in versatile physiological conditions like insomnia, alopecia (hair loss), anxiety, stress, and even in cases of postoperative pain. It also possesses antibacterial and antiviral effects. It is frequently applied in chiropractic maneuvering, massage, aroma, and acupuncture therapies. In recent days, aromatherapy using lavender oil has been noticed to be a noteworthy act effective in managing anxiety and depression [8]. The commonly prescribed medicines for anxiety are benzodiazepines or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). All of them have numerous side effects that essentially affect normal daily living [9,10]. Research on the aromatherapy of lavender has been pursued via the olfactory route. Its efficacy relies on the physiological actions of volatile molecular ingredients of lavender oil acting on limbic systems transforming psychology [11]. The lavender oil olfaction decreases anxiety as well as provides calming behavior that helps insomnia [12,13]. Lavender is even used orally for mood imbalances created by anxiety, insomnia, gastrointestinal distress, or “nervous stomach” [14]. Studies have demonstrated multiple mechanisms of action exerting a relaxing effect. The oil potentiates the expression of GABAA receptors and produces a spasmolytic effect on guinea pig ileum [15,16]. On the other hand, linalool, the major active ingredient inhibits glutamate binding in the brain. It also inhibits acetylcholine release and influences the ionic conductance of neurons. Additionally, linalyl acetate exerts relaxing effects. The oil dose-dependently reduces spontaneous motility and caffeine-induced hyperactivity in mice [17]. In essence, lavender oil imparts a distinctive pleasing fragrance evoking a sense of pleasure that makes its therapeutic uses in aromatherapy to relieve anxiety and stress of mind. The English species, Lavandula angustifolia is the most common variety used in most cases to extract oils commercially for medicinal and aromatherapy. The bioactive ingredients in oil vary significantly from one cultivar to another, and so the efficacy differs accordingly.

Phytochemical ingredients and associated biochemical and pharmacological effects: The phytochemical ingredients of widely used English lavender oil, Lavender Angustifolia are anthocyanins, Ursolic acid, valeric acid, phytosterols, sugars, coumaric acid, glycolic acid, minerals, camphor, herniarin, coumarin, and tannins. Nearly 44 organic compounds have been identified in lavender oil. Among them, the major ones are linalyl acetate ~ 27.5%, linalool ~ 24.1%, (E) – β – ocimene ~ 7.1%, Terpinen – 4-ol ~ 5.1%, caryophyllene ~ 4.5%, carvacrol ~ 4.4%, lavandulyl acetate ~ 3.5%, Z- β – farnesene ~ 3.3%, and Z – β – ocimene ~ 3.2% [18]. Regarding mineral content, the climatic factor changes the values considerably. Still, the average level is Calcium (Ca) 17.7 – 23.9 g /Kg, Magnesium (Mg) 2.2 – 4.4 g / Kg, Sodium (Na) ~ 0.37 g / Kg, Zinc (Zn) 23.0 – 106.3 mg / Kg, Copper (Cu) 7.2 – 11.1 mg / Kg, Manganese (Mn) 9.6 – 18.0 mg / Kg, and Iron (Fe) ~ 489 mg / Kg [19].

Several studies have indicated that the phyto-compounds present in the essential oil of lavender can exert versatile physiological and biochemical effects. The anticonvulsant effect occurs mainly because linalool suppresses motor activity by binding it to glutamate receptors. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). The action of linalool elevates the level of GABA which also produces hypnotic and anticonvulsant effects [20]. In vitro studies have shown that cineole, a monoterpene, can inhibit acetylcholine-induced muscle contraction. The action of linalool or linalyl acetate from lavender causes cAMP-mediated relaxation of guinea pig ileum. This effect on the sympathetic nervous system is mediated by cAMP. On the other hand, perillyl alcohol and limonene prevent tumor cell proliferation by stimulating apoptosis [21,22]. Perillyl alcohol is also seen as effective in controlling lung cancer by inhibiting farnesylation, which activates the oncogene Kras [23]. Cineole also blocks the enzyme action of HMGCo-A which results in lowering cholesterol in rats [24]. However, the conversion of lathosterol to cholesterol is also prevented by perillyl alcohol [25]. In this context, caffeic acid exerts a notable antioxidant role [26]. Additionally, it has been noted that both linalyl and linalyl acetate are easily absorbed through the skin during topical treatment or massage which in many situations causes CNS depression. Transdermal application of linalool also tends to reduce systolic blood pressure and skin temperature [27]. On the other hand, the level of linalool and linalyl acetate ratio in lavender oil determines its quality particularly, if higher than 1.0. However, the levels of others like borneol, α-terpineol, terpinene-4-ol, Lavandulol acetate, and caryophyllene are also accounted for in determining the oil quality [28]. The majority of the monoterpenes exist in oxygenated form (~ 73%) or monoterpene alcohols (~ 23%) [28]. Ocimene, cineol, camphor, and terpinen – 4 -ol adversely affect the rosy herbal scent of Lavandulol [29]. On the other hand, the presence of (z) Hex-3-enol or its esters spreads a fresh green herbal floral tone. Sleep improvement is a benefit of lavender oil, especially for elderly people and babies. Prolonged slow-wave sleep lasts longer if exposed to lavender during sleep [30]. The fruity scent is produced by different esters e.g., butyl, hexyl, or acetate esters of linalool and Lavandulol offering a pleasant scent of fresh flowers. In addition to those, monoterpene aldehydes as well as ketones also produce fresh scent flavors. The sweet aroma is also due to the presence of santalene and several other sesquiterpenes.

Major Phyto-components of Essential Oil in Lavender

Pharmacological effects: Lavender exhibits a great deal of pharmacological roles: A) Nervous system – aromatherapy using lavender oil changes sleep quality, and mood, and also lowers anxiety. It even acts as a sedative, analgesic, anticonvulsive, and neuroprotective; B) Anti-inflammatory; C) Antioxidant; D) Antimicrobial – lavender has antibacterial and antifungal actions; E) Anti-hypertension – it produces antihypertensive effects; F) Cholesterol and lipid-lowering effect; G) Anticancer – lavender seems to prevent the development of lung cancer.

Neurological activity – In multiple sclerosis (MS), both the spinal cord and brain are affected owing to this horrific debilitating illness. The endogenous immune system attacks the covering that naturally protects the nerve fiber. It has been noticed that lavender oil can protect against neuronal degeneration by enhancing the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in peripheral mononuclear cells of MS patients [31]. Further, using lavender oil as an olfactory stimulus to perform vestibular rehabilitation reduces the fear of falling and improves the balancing act in MS patients [32]. It has been established that the amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid/quisqualate receptor (AMPAR) becomes overactivated in some of the neurological illnesses created by stroke, epilepsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) / Lou Gehrig’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease or in similar adversarial conditions. Lavender oil acts as an AMPA receptor antagonist inhibiting glutamate binding thus providing a neuroprotective action. Additionally, the linalool of lavender oil has been identified to be an active ingredient enabling modulation of the T-type Ca+2 ion channels, the specific molecular target. So, the inhibition produced by oil or its active component, linalool provides anxiolytic and neuroprotective actions ascertaining its therapeutic benefits [33].

Effect of aromatherapy – It is noteworthy that in the aromatherapy group using lavender oil, there was a significant reduction in anxiety level in the first session, but no extra benefits were observed within further consecutive sittings. However, long-term therapy of inpatients in neurology has shown improved moods and reduced psychological symptoms [34]. Studies among ICU patients have indicated that the use of lavender oil in aromatherapy provides beneficial actions without inflicting any physical or psychological side effects. Presumably, the action may be linked to alterations in the autonomic nervous system [35]. It is somewhat unique to know that lavender increases the pitch of male and female voices; females gain the highest pitch level [36]. The change in pitch level is linked to positive emotions so it is a measure of a happy mood or joyful expression. It has been verified also that those who have inhaled 10% lavender oil for about 3.0 minutes are seen as more relaxed, less anxious, and in a good mood. The inhalation and subsequent EEG studies have proven how relaxed the subjects are. Further, aromatherapy with lavender oil has shown improvement in speed and accuracy in the course of mathematical calculations [37]. The therapy is also seen as being effective for chronic or refractory pain. Lavender oil particularly enriched with 1,8-cineole is known to be an analgesic. It can lower pain perception in both children and adults. It also reduces pain perception in patients having rheumatoid arthritis and improves sleep quality. Linalyl acetate and linalool produce local anesthetic effects that rely on the anti-muscarinic effect and blockade of ion channels, Na+ or Ca+2 [38]. Lavender helps cancer patients facing chemotherapy side effects like anxiety and pain. In a way, it helps patients in palliative care [39].

Effect on the nervous system – Its effect on the nervous system relies on multiple factors. The experiments indicate that lavender oil can inhibit the inflammatory responses produced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in human monocyte THP1 cells owing to the heat shock protein expression, HSP-70 [40]. It is further observed that lavender or linalool exerts anticholinergic and antioxidant effects [41,42]. It reduces acetylcholine release in neuromuscular joints which alters ion channel activity [40]. The anticholinergic, antioxidant, and neuroprotective activities of lavender are expected to help treat Alzheimer’s disease. Its neuroprotective action during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury occurs due to the antioxidant role of lavender ingredients [43]. It enhances rotarod/motor activity, increasing the level of dopamine receptor D3 [44]. The oil has shown increased inhibitory tone of the nervous system and subsequently alters GABAergic neurotransmission, particularly at GABAA receptors [45]. The report also indicates that inhalation of lavender oil causes analgesic, anxiolytic, antidepressant, and anticonvulsant effects [46,47]. Neuronal activation is due to the regulation of Fos expression, a nuclear transcription factor. The transcription factor regulates the expression of gene(s) associated with efficient adaptation to a particular environment. Factually, oil reduces the c-fos expression in paraventricular and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei in the hypothalamus [48]. It also dose-dependently suppresses histamine release and DNP-IgE-induced TNF – α production in mouse peritoneal mast cells. It is noticed to stimulate the parasympathetic nerve, suppressing sympathetic nerves innervating white and brown adipose tissues and the adrenal gland. Using histaminergic responses the lavender aroma, especially linalool stimulates autonomic nerves, lowers lipolysis and heat generation, and increases hunger and weight. Activating H3 receptors and reducing sympathetic nervous system activity lavender alleviates lipolysis [19]. The responses are mediated via the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus and histaminergic neurons [19,49].

Anxiolytic effect – For a long time traditional folk medicine has established the calming effect of lavender on nerves. Recent studies have identified that two major terpenoids of lavender oil, linalool, and linalyl acetate lessen anxiety by stimulating the olfactory system inside the nose and passing the signals to the brain. The inhaled molecules exert the effect by inhibiting voltage-gated Ca+2 channels, lowering the serotonin receptor (5HT1A) activity, and increasing the parasympathetic tone [50]. Studies further indicate that the vapor of lavender oil affects the brain through smell but not by absorption in the bloodstream via the lungs. Advantageously, unlike medicinal drugs like benzodiazepines or others, linalool, linalyl acetate, or lavender oil do not impair physical movement. Further in addition to aromatherapy relying on olfactory functions, oil is orally consumed which is commercially available in the name, of Silexan, an 80 mg capsule for humans, undergoing anxiety treatment [51] Based on the pharmacological data, oil components seem to work also via T-type Ca+2 channels that might affect CNS processes modulating anxiety. The complexity of T-type channels affecting the serotonergic actions may play a role in that act. Silexan increases extracellular serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine as evidenced by the experiments on rat brains [52]. It also increases 5-HT1A receptor density in humans after short-term administration. It is archetypical for antidepressants and anxiolytics depicting an indirect participation of serotonergic actions regarding the anxiolytic effects of lavender oil [51,53].

Effect of lavender on pain management – Chronic pain is often associated with depression, anxiety, and sleep deprivation [54]. Further, frequent pain is also often connected with herpes zoster including post-herpetic neuralgia, which can be intolerable. It is usually, treated with tricyclic antidepressants, antiepileptic drugs, different opioids, or capsaicin patches. But the constant use produces serious adverse effects. Aromatherapy using lavender oil is known to stimulate the brain’s limbic system [50]. Additionally, the inhaled molecules also pass into the capillary blood vessels via alveoli affecting endocrine and autonomic nervous systems. Previous studies have shown that aromatherapy has a large potential for clinical pain management [55]. In lavender, two major volatile compounds, linalool and linalyl acetate are responsible for the biological actions while rapidly working via the limbic system [56]. Studies on mice having neuropathic pain have reported that oral introduction of lavender oil causes the anti-hyperalgesic effect consequently reducing phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) in the spinal cord. In other studies, neuropathic pain induced in mice by spinal nerve ligation has shown that linalool reduces mechanical allodynia [57]. A clinical study of patients receiving colorectal cancer surgery has shown that inhaling lavender oil or linalyl acetate after removing an indwelling/Foley urinary catheter significantly decreases urinary residual sense and pain scores [58]. The above findings suggest that lavender oil and its components can reduce the severity and intensity of pain in patients [59].

Antiinflammatory and wound healing effect – Lavender oil is known to offer several benefits to the skin, including lowering inflammation and improving wound healing with proper dilution. Pain-evoking inflammation can be treated well with lavender oil. Additionally, its pain-relieving and numbing actions help lessen the inflammation. Lavender oil can also rapidly cure burns and other wounds. The presence of β-caryophyllene may act as a natural anti-inflammatory item. Studies have shown that the oil can promote the wound-healing process, assisted by transforming growth factor – β (TGF-β) [60]. The anti-inflammatory activity has been studied using both linalool and lavender oil on human leukemia monocyte cell line (THP-1) stimulated by the inflammatory agent, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Both have lowered the release of proinflammatory cytokines, following the NF-κβ pathway [61]. Interestingly, oil extracted at the beginning period of flowering acts as a potent inhibitor of cytokine, IL-6, IL-8, IL- β, and TNF – α synthesis [61]. The anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and immunomodulatory activities have been tested in various ways. The results have shown that the action of lavender oil is comparable to dexamethasone. Animal experiments have further established that hydroalcoholic extracts of lavender can efficiently reduce inflammation by attenuating the expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS, COX-2, and MMP-9 [62]. In a way, it has a large therapeutic potential [62,63].

Role in dentistry for analgesic and topical anesthetic effects – The oil contains linalool, linalyl acetate, cineole/ocimene, terpinene-4-ol, and camphor, the major phyto-components of lavender. Most of these ingredients act as analgesics or topical anesthetics in addition to their other biological effects, including antimicrobial, antibacterial, and other related activities necessary for dentistry [64]. In dentistry, the reaction between the host and the immune system is often seen to damage the structure of periodontium creating inflammation and pain. By inhibiting prostaglandins, lavender relieves pain sensation [65]. Owing to these effects, lavender oil can be a prospective medicine instead of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. It can also be locally applied as an ointment to prevent gingivitis. Studies have further shown that this oil can synergize the effect of topical anesthetic, benzocaine [66]. It can cure aphthous ulcers/canker sores due to its antioxidant roles [67].

Antioxidant effect – The antioxidant role of lavender is mainly due to the ingredients of essential oil which shows a high positive correlation. In that regard, phenolic acids are the most accountable factor but not the flavonoids, anthocyanins, or tannins. The antioxidant effect is highest in the leaves compared to flowers, buds, or stems. The overall average activity is ~ 83.2% [68].

Anticancer effect – Preclinical studies indicate that lavender plays a strong role against various cancer cell proliferation [69]. When tested in vivo using extraction by methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, or chloroform, the extraction by chloroform is the most efficient on breast cancer cells, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-231 implanted on mice [70]. Other studies in vitro also demonstrate that the oil is cytotoxic to malignant cell line AMJ-13 (breast carcinoma) and HCAM (hepatocellular carcinoma) but not toward normal cells.  The antitumor actions are correlated to its antioxidant potential [71]. In addition to others, one of the components in lavender oil is perillyl alcohol which has shown the ability to tumor inhibition and regression [70]. Its intranasal administration shows encouraging results in the case of malignant glioma within patients possibly due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and the cytoplasmic membrane [72]. Numerous other studies have also exhibited the anticancer/antitumor potential of lavender oil in vitro tested on the prostate (PC3), hepatocellular (HepG2), lung (A549), cervical (HeLa), and colon (HCT116) cell lines [70].

Cardioprotective effect – Lavender oil has shown a predictable cardioprotective effect which is beneficial for therapeutic reasons. Versatile explanations in its favor are brought to light based on numerous experiments. One of them is attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways in patients with ischemic heart injury or myocardial infarction. It significantly lowers troponin-1 and TNF – α levels when administered via gastric gavage [73]. It strengthens the myocardial membrane and thus helps maintain cardiac cell structure alleviating cardiac tissue damage. In addition, it improves cardiac function in case of myocardial infarction and reduces cardiac tissue injury regulating cytokine expression, TNF – α, IL-1β, and IL-10, simultaneously enhancing the level of antioxidant enzymes [74]. Essentially, its cardioprotective action is mainly caused by regulating inflammation and oxidative stress.

Effect on male ejaculation – For a long time lavender scent has been considered to be an aphrodisiac in males. It is also noted that in combination with the scent of pumpkin pie, the oil enhances the penile blood flow and holds the erection for a longer period. It has a protective role on damaged or dysfunctional reproductive systems although it seems to exert an estrogenic effect [75]. Experiments have shown that metabolites of lavender extract have a significant role in sexual behavior, particularly in the event of ejaculation. Among the phyto-ingredients, linalool has been identified which acts on glutaminergic, GABAergic, and dopaminergic receptors benefiting ejaculation. Studies have shown that prior treatment with lavender extract (100 mg/Kg) significantly reduces ejaculation induced by apomorphine [76]. Dopaminergic and cholinergic neurotransmitters are linked to ejaculatory events [77]. The study indicates that the event of ejaculation is mediated in part by the disruption of dopaminergic and cholinergic neurotransmission [78].  

Anti-hypertension effect – Lavender oil is widely known to lower stress and anxiety by way of aromatherapy which even helps reduce hypertension. In chronic hypertensive patients, 10 minutes a day of inhalation for 14 days lowers both systolic and diastolic blood pressure reducing heart rate and cortisol levels in serum [79]. Other inhalation studies have shown that the diastolic pressure drops by 13.47 mm whereas systolic pressure is lowered by 11.82 mm Hg. There is also a lowering of 5.08 beats/min of heart rate. A concomitant decrease of about 3.27 µg / dl in serum cortisol levels among the inhaling participants is also noticed [80].

Antiparasite, antimicrobial, and antifungal effects – The oil has strong antiparasitic properties against a few common human organisms, particularly Giardia lamblia and Trichomonas vaginialis. Giardia affects nearly 200 million people worldwide causing chronic or acute diarrhea and children are the major victims. The oil can remove this intestinal infection. Studies in vitro have shown that the oil can also eliminate Trichomonas vaginalis, a nonviral infection causing versatile health problems for women leading to infertility, premature birth, infant mortality, and HIV susceptibility [19]. The potent antifungal effect of oil has been noticed regarding nail and skin fungal infections [81]. The oil is effective against several bacteria like E. coli, Listeria, and Salmonella typhimurium [82]. Uniquely, it is also active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE). The oil is seen as potent against acne [83,84].

Summary: Lavender is a perennial flowering herb, widely known for its medicinal and cosmetic uses. The extracted essential oil enriched with plenty of phyto-ingredients is heavily exploited in perfumes, aromatherapy, or food use. Its bioactive ingredients have shown huge prospects of being a successful alternative therapeutic agent to treat several diseases, mainly associated with oxidative stress. In addition to them, it has antifungal, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antiparasite, neurologic, and analgesic effects.

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