Cucumber / Kankri, Khira (Hindi)/ Shosha(শসা, Bengali)

General features: The botanical name of this annual plant is Cucumis sativus (CS). It is a creeping vine and belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family of the Cucumis genus. The fruits fall in the category of gourd or melon. It is a popular vegetable crop and has also been used in traditional / folk medicine from ancient times. This fruit/vegetable is remarkably low in calories and high in water content [1]. There are several varieties of cultivars naturally produced. Some are seedless and used for pickling (preserving in vinegar and brine). The plant is native to South Asian countries like India, China, and Thailand. However, at present it is cultivated in most countries around the world. The plant grows large green leaves which form a canopy over the fruits. The typical fruits are cylindrical, elongated with tapered ends, approximately 8 – 12 inches long and 2 – 3 inches in diameter. CS has trumpet-shaped flowers with a bright yellow crown. Uniquely, the fruit holds ~ 95 % water. Too many tiny white seeds are aligned linearly inside which are flat shaped. The skin is yellowish-white to light brown. Like tomatoes, CS is counted either to be a vegetable or a fruit that can be eaten raw. Most of the cultivars need pollination. So a large number of beehives are kept in the CS growing fields before the blooming season. Normally it is pollinated by bumblebees. It requires pollen from other plants to produce seeds and fruits. But some categories do not need pollination and it produces seedless variety fruit [2]. Normally they are grown inside the greenhouse. The seedless fruits seem inferior to the normal types. The traditional varieties at first make male blossoms then females in almost equivalent quantities. New gynoecious hybrid cultivars are being created, making all the female blossoms. They already have pollinizer cultivars interplanted although temperature fluctuations induce male flowers even in these plants. It could be sufficient for pollination to take place [2]. In 2009 the CS genome was sequenced [3]. The phytochemicals, particularly cucurbitacin C produce a bitter taste that is identified to deter natural foraging by herbivores like wildlife, nematodes, or even insects while acting as an internal chemical defense [4]. Raw fruits contain 95% water, 4% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and negligible fat. About 100 gm or 3.5 OZ provides 16 Kcals of food energy. Its micronutrient content is notably low except Vitamin K which is ~ 16% of the daily value. The fruits have pleasant aroma or flavor like melon, which is due to unsaturated aldehydes, (E, Z)-nona-2,6-dienal and cis- and trans– isomers of 2-noneanal. The light bitter taste of CS particularly the skin is due to cucurbitacin [5]. Chemical analysis indicates the presence of tannins, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, carbohydrates, resins, saponins, sterols, alkaloids, and flavonoids. The plant shows versatile pharmacological activities e.g., antifungal, antibacterial, antacid, carminative, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic [6]. It has been known for a long time that fresh CS fruit has anti-acne activity.

Following traditional use, the fresh fruits are either thinly sliced or shredded. They are then squeezed filtered and drunk at least 2 – 3 times a day. The shredded fruits are also applied topically after washing the face with warm water and later wiping with a clean cloth [7]. The above drink also has a potent antidiabetic effect. CS has been widely acknowledged for its antidiabetic or hypoglycemic role [8]. Approximate worldwide production of CS is about 91 million tonnes of which ~ 80% are cultivated in China alone [9].

History of cucumber use: CS has been known for nearly 4,000 years and presumably originated in India. It is regarded to be one of the most ancient vegetables/fruits cultivated in the world. Diverse categories of cucumber exist in India and the rest of the other nations. Interestingly, it was cultivated in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome even in the pre-biblical age. Egyptians used to prepare mild liquors from it. Evidence indicates that around 2800 BC CS was grown in Egypt. The fruit was a symbol of happiness and fertility to the ancient Egyptians. They also used it as a natural medicine against a variety of ailments including headaches, constipation, and sore throats. Greeks and Romans also produced cucumbers and to them, it is a valuable source of food. In ancient Persia (currently Iran), CS was even served at royal banquets. Besides, it was also used in traditional Persian medicine to treat constipation and headaches. It also found uses to cure sunburn, and scorpion bites, and to remove bad breath. History has further recorded that Roman Emperor Tiberius (42 BC – 37 AD) liked to have cucumbers in daily meals as indicated by Pliny the Elder (23 – 79 AD), the legendary Roman Naturalist and Philosopher and author of the encyclopedia “Naturalis Histroia”. According to him, Romans scientifically devised a greenhouse system. It was covered and simultaneously allowed unremitting sunlight by using mirror-stone (Mica sheet) to reflect the sun inside at wintertime keeping the place warm to grow cucumber under proper conditions throughout the year so that the emperor always had in his meals. The Italian variety of CS is somewhat small almost like the Gherkin type. Pliny wrote about several different categories their remedial actions, and medicinal properties [10]. History additionally indicates that Charlemagne (747 – 814 AD) the Holy Roman Emperor was a great connoisseur of cucumber. He ordered to grow it in his Royal Garden in Italy. Afterward the popularity of this fruit spread throughout Western Europe. The fruit was primarily introduced at first in Europe ostensibly by the Greeks and Romans. History confirmed that it emerged in France and England between the 9th and 14th centuries whereas in North America it appeared around the 16th century. It arrived in the New World by Columbus. He also introduced it to Haiti in 1494 AD. Around 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer noticed the cultivation of cucumber, a new fruit in Montreal. Throughout the 16th century, the native American Rocky Mountain and Great Plane tribes learnt to cultivate CS from the Spanish settlers and included it in their usual cultivable crops [11]. In 1630 Rev Higginson wrote a book “New-England’s Plantation”, a vegetable garden near Boston Harbor called “The Governor’s Garden” where he noticed the cultivation of cucumber. In the book “New England Prospect” (1633) there was a mention of cucumber use in America, in 1629 [12]. Unsurprisingly, CS has been noticed to be greatly popular in ancient China and held a significant role in traditional Chinese medicine. It was first introduced around the 2nd century BC but quickly turned out to be an important crop for its nutritional and medicinal role in health. According to traditional Chinese medicine, CS has calming as well as cooling effect on the body which makes it a valuable remedy for fever, inflammation, and high blood pressure. CS juice has diuretic properties promoting urine flow and helping relieve urinary tract infections. The seeds can treat constipation and other digestive problems. According to Chinese traditional medicine, CS is a highly valued crop necessary for the sake of maintaining good health. Recently four countries are globally the largest producers of cucumbers: China, India, Russia, and the USA. Among them, China stands to be the highest, ~ 82% of the world’s total production. In China, cucumbers have been cultivated for over 3000 years. Chinese believed that it had cleansing and cooling actions on health. Chinese people use it also to improve their skin condition even today to enhance their digestive ability and promote weight loss. In ancient India, owing to the warm and muggy weather, cucumbers were eaten for their cooling action and hydrating the body. According to traditional Ayurvedic medicine, CS is used to control arthritis and high blood pressure. In some Ayurvedic cuisines, cucumbers are frequently combined with cooling, calming, or detoxifying vegetables and spices e.g., mint, coriander leaves, and lemon juice to prepare refreshing dishes. In overall consideration, CS is a valuable part of a balanced Ayurvedic diet. 

Culinary aspects: The fresh raw eating variety of CS is often called ‘Slicing’ cucumbers. It grows on vines displaying large leaves that provide shades for their growth [13]. ‘Pickling’ is a process developed by the Chinese workers during the building of “Great Wall of China” (7th century BC to 1644 AD) [14]. However, some historians disagree with this fact. According to them, it has been already practiced since 2020 BC. Uniquely, the process is still being followed even today to preserve numerous vegetables by keeping them in brine, sugar, and vinegar, and also adding appropriate spices to provide genial tastes [15]. The common variety used for this purpose is called ‘Pickled’ cucumbers which are small, but very uniform in size (3 – 4 inches long and ~ 1 inch diameter), having yellow to dark green color. The variety that is normally used for pickling in northern European nations is called ‘Gherkins’ which are somewhat small about the same size as ‘Pickling’ but have bumpy skin. They are cultivated mostly in the Netherlands and are closely related to the West Indian variety. There is another variety of CS which is called Burpless cucumber. They have earned a reputation for easy digestibility and pleasant tastes. They are longer in size (12 – 18 inches) as well as seedless with delicate light skin and are usually grown inside greenhouses. These parthenocarpic (way of inducing fruit production without the fertilization of ovules making them seedless) cucumbers are extremely popular since some people suffer flatulence from the cucumber skin and seeds. Parthenocarpy has been known from ancient times and scientifically illustrated by German Botanist Fritz Noll in 1902. It also occasionally occurs owing to natural mutation [16].

Traditional medicinal actions: In the Indian subcontinent, cucumbers grow wildly in the Himalayan regions extending from Kumaon to Sikkim. Fruit is a good source of nutrition. Traditional Indian herbal medicine particularly Ayurveda points out its applications while using fruits, leaves, and seeds which are often employed to cure skin problems like sunburn, wrinkles, puffy eyes, and inflammatory fevers. The plant extract or its pastes promote healing and soothing of dry or sunburn skin by acting as an emollient or moisturizer alleviating the itching effect of irritated skin and providing cosmetic actions [17]. The fruits show hemostatic, diuretic, and tonic/refreshing effects. It exhibits numerous therapeutic effects in the case of fever, insomnia, cephalgia (pain in the head, neck, or face), jaundice, bronchitis, hemorrhages, strangury, and hyperdipsia (excessive thirst). The traditional uses further include antidiabetic, antiulcer, anthelmintic, antimicrobial, and moisturizing actions. The pulp made from seeds has been used over the centuries as a folk cosmetic applicable to any skin complication even for deep cleaning of the face as well as to reduce the hyperpigmentation effect [18,19]. As a traditional medicine, fruit juices are used as depurative, diuretic, demulcent, purgative, and resolvent offering anti-inflammatory actions. According to the Chinese folk treatment, the leaves stems, and roots show anti-diarrheal, detoxicant, and even anti-gonorrheal properties. The leaf juice is noticed to act as an emetic and is used to treat dyspepsia and throat infections among children in combination with cumin seeds [20]. The green fruit juice acts against dyspepsia, asthma, piles, hepatitis, bronchitis, cough expulsion, antipyretic, and menstrual disorders. It is also a good hair tonic. The extracted oil from seeds is shown to be useful for rheumatism, diuresis, and anthelmintic purposes [21]. In a way, CS fruits and plants show high therapeutic potential in preventing or curing a horde of ailments.

Origin of Cucumber: The cucumber genus ‘Cucumis’ once raised a great interest regarding its evolution in Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778 AD), a legendary Swedish botanist, taxonomist, and physician who invented binomial nomenclature, forever known to be the “father of modern taxonomy”. As per the evolutionary measures, Cucumis genomes are seen to be labile, so insisting to believe that several genetic variants exist in nature around the world. It has two types of subgenus. The first one is naturally developed in Africa whereas the other one is in the Asian continent [22]. Studies further reveal that CS is particularly the species that has the number of chromosomes, N = 7 which could be evolved from the ancestral karyotype with N = 12 [23]. Evolutionary evidence also suggests that cucumber especially cucumber sativa is indigenous to the north Indian Himalayan region [24].

Uses of Cucumber leaves: In addition to fruits, the leaves also provide immense benefits considering medicinal and nutritional aspects regarding health. The leaves are enriched with vitamins A, C, and K, that has a crucial role in maintaining healthy life. The reported phyto-ingredients are flavonoids, phenolics, carotenoids, steroids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, glycosides, proteins, vitamins, and minerals like calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Together they help maintain good health. Beyond its nutritional value, the leaves also find uses in culinary applications. Even having a slightly bitter taste the fresh leaves are a refreshing addition to green salads or hot vegetable soups offering an enjoyable different taste. It helps digestion, cooling, and calming of the body. Owing to its large chemical reserves the leaf plays versatile medicinal roles. Its topical application cures sunburn soothes skin irritations, and heals mild rashes. It also has strong anti-inflammatory properties helping reduce redness and discomfort, alleviate swelling, and provide relief from arthritis and joint pain. Ingesting tea prepared from dried leaf induces diuresis, enabling to flushing of toxins and excess water from the body. Further, it helps reduce bloating and promote kidney health. In overall consideration, the fresh green leaves are a good edible vegetable.[https://www.free-pictures-photos.com/cucumber-leaves-a-refreshing-addition-to-your-garden/#:]

Phytochemicals and biochemical roles: Phytochemicals are synthesized in different parts of the plant in dissimilar ratios. They are responsible for their differential medicinal role. The plant as a whole shows large therapeutic potential due to numerous phytoconstituents, among them, the most important are Curcubitacin and Curcumerin.

Fruits contain water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, and minerals (calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B). It also produces a large concentration of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Additionally, fruits possess several proteolytic enzymes including malic and succinic dehydrogenase. Besides those, it synthesizes flavonoids, steroids, and other therapeutic phyto-ingredients.

Leaves – CS leaves are actual sources of major phytocompounds e.g. Vitexin-6-(4-hydroxy-1-ethylbenzene)/ cucumerin A, Isovitexin-8(4-hydroxy-1-ethylbenzene)/cucumerin B – two major glycosyl flavonoids especially found in the leaves. Other flavonoids like vitexin, Isovitexin, orientin, isoorientin, and 4 – 4-hydroxycinnamic acid, cucumegastigmane I, and cucumegastigmane II, lutein, indole-3-carboxylic acid, and adenosine.

Flowers – The methanolic extract of Cs flowers contains quercitin 3-O-glucoside, Kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, Isorhamnetin -3-O-glucoside, and kaempferol 3-Orhamnoside.

Seeds – The seeds produce several proteins and fatty acids. The fatty acids are palmitic, stearic, linoleic, and oleic. In addition, it has several sterols like codisterol, 25 (27) dehydroporifersterol, Clerosterol, isofucosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, 22-dihydrobrassicasterol, sitosterol, 25 (27)-dehydrofungisterol, 25 (27) hydrocondrillasterol, 24-β-25(27)-dehydrofungisterol, Avenasterol, 22-dihydrispinasterol, 24-methylenecolesterol, and gibberellin.

Peel pulp – Its extract from three different cultivars contains lactic acid which is a good antioxidant. It also possesses essential oils and several other compounds which include Z-6-nonenol, E -2-nonenol, E, Z-2,6-nondienal, E,2-noneanl, Z-3-nonenol, 3-nonenal, Pentadecanal, 9,12,15octatrienal, and 9,17octadecadienal [21].  

Important steroidal compounds belonging to the cucurbitacin family are shown below which have potent anticancer roles [21].

Anticancer/ antitumor effects of Curcubitacins → Majority of the Curcubitacin analogs exhibit anticancer actions toward diverse types of cancers while acting as anticancer agents. Cucumbers are characterized as an anticancer fruit, and their phyto-components have therapeutic potential for cancer/tumor therapy. Cucurbitacin A and B are used as chemotherapeutic agents for lung cancer, breast tumor growth, and chemopreventive for prostate cancer. Cucurbitacin C has cytotoxic and antitumor activities. Cucurbitacin D shows strong immunomodulating properties also used to treat lung and breast cancer. Cucurbitacin E prevents breast cancer metastasis and inhibits triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). It also acts as a cell cycle regulator for cancer cells, lung cancer (A549), liver cancer (Hep3B), and colon cancer (SW480). The compound Cucurbitacin I is sometimes used as an adjunct chemotherapy agent.

Biochemical effects of these glyco-flavonoids – Plenty of flavonoids are synthesized in fruits, leaves, stems, and roots. Each of them has diverse medicinal roles but in common they all act as strong antioxidants. Vitexin acts as a neuroprotective, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and preventive for the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Isovitexin also acts like vitexin. Orientin is a powerful antioxidant. Isoorientin is a strong anti-inflammatory compound. Cucumegastigmane I is a powerful cytotoxic compound. Saponarin is a hepatoprotective and antioxidant compound that is proven in laboratory experiments using Paracetamol / Tylenol-induced hepatotoxicity. Cucumerin A & B are phytoalexins that act as antimicrobial compounds, naturally synthesized within plants to protect them from invading microbes. Quercitin -3-Oglucoside is a powerful antioxidant and has a wound-healing role.  Quercetin downregulates anti-apoptotic protein Bcl – w [25]. It is also a nonspecific protein kinase enzyme inhibitor [26]. Kaempferol – 3 – O glucoside acts as an antiinflammatory and analgesic agent. Isorhamnetin -3-O-glucoside can prevent hepatoxicity as confirmed by the laboratory experiments of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced toxicity in the liver [21].

Pharmacological effects: Owing to its large reserve of versatile phytochemicals CS fruits, leaves, and roots indicate numerous pharmacological effects. A few of them are described below.

Antioxidant effect – The aqueous fruit and leaf extracts have shown potent free radical scavenging activities. The presence of polyphenolics like flavonoids, tannins, and several others is the major responsible factor. They offer protective effects against chronic diseases like cancers, cardiovascular, and other inflammatory or metabolic diseases. Further, the polysaccharide fraction of cucumber has shown most of the free radical scavenging ability (80%) including reducing and high antioxidant action. Its modification by any derivatization considerably reduces those effects [27].

Anticancer effect – Plants producing fruits/vegetables belonging to the Cucurbitacea family have shown immense impact on human health. Among them, cucumber fruits, flowers, roots, and leaves enriched with Cucurbitacins, particularly Cucurbitacin A, B, C, D, and E or its analogs have been widely acknowledged for their significant biological activities, especially in controlling any tumors or cancers. Those compounds, even having diverse therapeutic actions and potentials find clinical applications in chemotherapy/chemoprevention and possess a role in preventing varieties of cancers. It has been particularly noticed that the extract of CS flowers has anticancer effects against liver cancer cells inducing apoptosis (HepG2 cell line, LD50 ~ 103.7 µg / ml). Similar experiments in vitro are also conducted on human leukemia cells (K562), murine melanoma cells (B16), and human lung adenoma cells (A549) to evaluate anticancer actions. It has been confirmed that extract enriched with Cucurbitacins inhibits tumor growth by inactivating ribosomes. In addition to Cucurbitacin derivatives, polyphenols, tannins, and flavonoids are also partially responsible for anticarcinogenic activity owing to antioxidant properties [28]. However, Cucurbitacins are acknowledged to be a potent anticancer agent inhibiting cell proliferation, migration subsequent invasion, promoting apoptosis, also cell cycle arrest. They inhibit versatile cell signaling routes including JAK-STAT3, Wnt, PI3K/Akt, and MAPK pathway. It is already known that these signaling routes play an eminent role in the survival and destruction of cancer cells. Further, cooperative anticancer actions while using cucurbitacin jointly with chemotherapeutic drugs like methotrexate and docetaxel have been identified and administered to treat cancers [29].

Anti-inflammatory effect – It is a widely accepted fact that cucumber reduces any endogenous inflammation. It is full of antioxidants loaded with polyphenols, particularly lignans, and cucurbitacin derivatives. Those ingredients can fight off internal inflammation throughout the entire body and simultaneously destroy any generated free radicals that may be the underlying cause behind many chronic metabolic disorders like cancers and cardiovascular. In addition to its free radical scavenging activities, the fruit extract or homogenate can inhibit phospholipase A2 and prostaglandin synthase which could be the real mechanism behind its antiinflammatory actions [30].

Antidiabetic effect – Cucumbers can significantly lower blood glucose which has been known for a long time particularly if consumed in appreciably high amounts. It has been identified that CS fruits lower blood glucose by inhibiting the activity of α-amylase (IC50 ~ 51. 24 µg / ml) and α-glucosidase (IC50 ~ 29. 37 µg / ml) in the case of alloxan-induced diabetic rats. In addition to other phytocomponents, the antidiabetic activity of CS mostly relies on Kaempferol, and its derivatives as evidenced by numerous studies both in vivo and in vitro. Kaempferol also lowers lipid and cholesterol levels in the blood [31].

Antimicrobial activity – The fruit extract shows potent antimicrobial effect when tested against six Gram-negative and Gram-positive strains like Staph aureus, Staph epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and E coli. Among the extracts of peel and pulp by dichloromethane or methanol the fruit extract stands to be more powerful. Further, sphingolipids isolated from CS stems have exceedingly strong antifungal effects. It also shows strong antibacterial actions. Additionally, the seed extract exhibits exceedingly strong antimicrobial actions, particularly on E. coli strains [32].

Effect on osteoarthritis – Studies using one hundred twenty-two patients of either sex aged between 40 – 75 years suffering moderate knee osteoarthritis were given orally 10 mg of CS aqueous extract twice daily and compared with a group of patients receiving 1350 mg glucosamine-chondroitin in a similar way. According to the Ontario Master University Osteoarthritis Index, groups receiving CS extract show decrease by 22.44% on day 30 and 70.29% on day 180, compared to 14.8% and 32.81% lowering in the case of glucosamine chondroitin group. Additionally, CS extract shows no adverse effects on patients which makes its use more compelling. So, it could be an effective treatment for patients with moderate knee osteoarthritis and can be used also for managing knee pain, stiffness, and problems regarding osteoarthritis [33].

Effect on wound healing: Protease isolated from CS can cleave both fibrinogen and fibrin as well. It also reduces prothrombin time, activates Partial thromboplastin time, and recalcification time.  Owing to its homeostatic activity this protease from CS can be used potentially as a therapeutic agent for wound healing [34].

Effect on ulcerative colitis – Pretreatment for seven days with aqueous extract of CS significantly lowers the acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in Wister rats. The effect is due to the anti-inflammatory actions exerted by CS. There is a significant reduction in ulcer area [35].

Summary about beneficial facts of cucumber: Cucumber has been widely acknowledged to be a vegetable but in scientific terms it is a fruit because it grows from fertilized flowers and has enclosed seeds. It is highly nutritious and loaded with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory ingredients. A simple example is beta carotene which is a powerful antioxidant that attacks free radicals in the human body which are unpaired electrons enabling to damage cells leading to various metabolic diseases. Others like lignans help prevent osteoporosis, cardiovascular problems, and cancers. Vitamin K helps blood clotting, helping to heal wounds, promote bone health, and enhance calcium absorption. It also exhibits a strong role in regulating blood glucose preventing diabetes. Slice of a cucumber on eyelid reduces puffiness which is a cosmetic tip. Scientifically, it happens only due to its coldness not for any other reasons.

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