Kale / Karam Saag (Hindi)/ Kashmiri Saag

Kale / Karam Saag (Hindi)/ Kashmiri Saag

General features:  It is known to be a leafy cabbage for its near appearance. It is a green leafy cruciferous vegetable enriched with vitamins and minerals. The plant belongs to the cabbage or Brassica oleracea family. Kale is grown for the edible leaves. Besides cabbage, its other nearest cousin is collard. It has been speculated that this vegetable green is a primitive form of cabbage that has been retained for several millennia. As per evolutionary measures, the more developed forms are cauliflower, cabbage with head, or broccoli. All of them came to light in the last two thousand years. But kale or possibly collard continues even to be primitive, owing to their merits to be garden vegetables. Kale is also often used for ornamental reasons to decorate the garden owing to its occasional growth with nice purple leaves instead of the usual green. The ornamental varieties are also edible and possess almost similar ingredients. Many consider kale as wild cabbage or wild mustard and a domesticated form of vegetable green belonging to the Brassica oleracea family. The plant perhaps originates from the Mediterranean region which is present-day Turkey. Even though, the word ‘Kale’ actually derives from Middle English signifying varieties of ‘cabbages’ [1,2]. In India, Kale / Karam saag mainly grows in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, a part of the north Indian states or Nilgiri Hills. It is thus often colloquially called Kashmiri saag [https://dishcovery.in/recipes/kashmiri-saag]. It has been cultivated for food since 2000 BC, first spotted in Anatolia / Asia Minor. However, evidence also indicates that this non-head flat-leaf cabbage already existed even in the 4th century BC. The Romans and Sabellians used it as a food. Since they were cultivated for a long time, almost from prehistoric times, and afterward transferred by traders and migrant tribes, it is thus difficult to identify their native origin. The word ‘Kale’ is evolved from the Scottish word “coles’ or ‘caulis’ which was once used by the Romans and Greeks to refer to plants having cabbage-like appearance [3]. The German word ‘Kohl’ bears the same meaning. Kale grows in different shapes. On the other hand, ‘Collards’ is a corruption of Colwarts or Colewyrts as per the Anglo-Saxon term signifying any cabbage-like vegetables. Historically, even Greeks used to cultivate it in appreciable amounts, but they never created any distinction between them. Long before the appearance of Christianity, Romans used to grow several kinds of Kale including those with long leaves and stalks and mild flavor or crispy leaves with small stalks and small size. Some of them were also grown with curled leaves and fine flavor. Many European writers of the 4th and 13th centuries mentioned their use also. Some have suggested that Romans might bring it to Britain and France. It was introduced much later in America around 1669 AD since European settlers arrived here long before. In far east/oriental nations neither of these species was ever popular except Mustard with a strong pungent spicy flavor which also belongs to the Brassica family [5]. Considering its growing nature, Kale can withstand fairly low temperatures that include frost or moderate winter but not the other way around except mustard, which can grow in the hot and humid conditions of the tropics. It is speculated that Russian traders introduced Kale in Canada which was later transferred to the US. It is also believed that the present-day use of Kale in the US has been introduced by a USDA botanist, David Fairchild who brought the plant from Croatia. Kale is extensively cultivated in Croatia since it is almost effortless to grow and also quite inexpensive and further, it can desalinate soil [4]. In the US this vegetable green gained popularity around 1990 owing to its high nutritional value. But it was not a new vegetable because, in the early 1800s, Thomas Jefferson cultivated numerous varieties of Kale in his estate, Monticello in Virginia. During World War II cultivation of Kale was promoted due to its high nutrient content and became necessary for the implementation of food rationing in the UK and Europe [6]. The plant is uniquely enriched with numerous important minerals and vitamins. In the days of slavery, the southern slave owners were amazed to see that even with the poor diets provided to them they were still well nourished. It was the Kale or Collards that the slaves used to grow for a living. This vegetable is easier to grow. They are biennials and grow from seeds. It can survive the seasonal frost even at 5 ◦ F until the harsh winter arrives. Fascinatingly, its taste turns much sweeter after experiencing heavy frost [7]. It is now a popular green salad or a decorative garnish. In this decade the popularity of Kale is soaring because of its immense medicinal role in health.

Nutritional values and health benefits of Kale: Besides major water (84%) content, it has 9% carbohydrate, 4% protein, and 1% fat. It is also a good source of fiber (4.7 g / 100 g) and antioxidants. The plant provides plenty of health benefits that include managing blood pressure and boosting digestive health and the immune system. It is heavily enriched with vitamins C, A, K, B6, E, and folate. This vegetable green offers numerous dietary minerals. In terms of 100 g vegetables, the amounts are iron (1.0 mg), calcium (177 mg), magnesium (30mg), potassium (170 mg), Zinc (0.3 mg), and phosphorus (50 mg) which is present in it at high levels. Boiling reduces the levels to a certain extent but not completely. Kale is often designated as a superstar food concerning nutritional aspects. However, owing to its high oxalate content, those facing problems with kidney stones should avoid or reduce their intake. Additionally, patients taking blood thinners (warfarin or coumadin) are also advised to stay away from Kale due to an overly synthesized level of vitamin K (370 µg / 100g)]. Owing to its high fiber, antioxidants, and mineral content Kale is often recommended for people having several health problems like diabetes, heart disease, and particularly cancers. It can prevent constipation, promote regularity and maintain a healthy digestive tract. It also helps keep bones healthy due to an appreciable reserve of calcium, phosphorous, and vitamin K which reduces the risk of bone fracture possibility. Furthermore, this vegetable also helps keep skin, hair, and eyes healthy [medicalnewstoday.com].

Chemical ingredients: Besidesthe appreciable reserve of minerals, Kale possesses significant levels of favorable phytochemicals like carotenoids, polyphenols, and glucosinolates. The major carotenoids are lutein and zeaxanthin which are derivatives of tetraterpenes since they hold 8 isoprene units and 40 carbon atoms within the skeletal backbones. On the other hand violaxanthin and neoxanthin are produced by epo-oxidation due to endogenous production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). They all act as strong antioxidants and also potent anticancer agents. Furthermore, carotenoids can absorb light during photosynthesis and provide photoprotection [8]. Lutein and Zeaxanthin exist within macular pigments and are important for visual function [9]. Like many cruciferous vegetables, Kale also contains glucosinolate compounds (41 µmol / g dry weight) which are common among the members of the Braceace family. Those sulfur-containing phytochemicals are also synthesized in broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and most cruciferous vegetables. They exhibit potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial, anticancer actions especially when activated during chewing or by any healthy bacteria inside the human gut [10,11]. Glucosinolates exist at a quite high concentration in green and red Kale. They are potential antineoplastic agents. They also alleviate insulin resistance and inhibit adipocyte differentiation preventing adipogenesis or body fat. The presence of allyl isothiocyanate, indole-3 carbinol, sulforaphane, and other glucosinolates are the major components liable for the actions. However, they could be destroyed by boiling, but frying and sautéing would not decrease the level significantly. On the other hand, cooking reduces the high level of oxalic acid [12]. Besides oxalate, Kale also has significant levels of nitrate (NO3–), 1563 mg / 100 g dry weight. Compared to spinach and other greens this vegetable has more. Plants usually use it during nitrogen fixation. Nitrates have a noteworthy role in human health. By generating nitric oxide (NO), it helps lower blood pressure and dilates blood vessels improving blood flow to the heart and also reducing angina problems. It is an anti-inflammatory compound. However, numerous studies have raised logical and realistic suspicion about its cancer-causing potential [https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/nitrate-in-foods-healthy-heart-or-cancer-risk]. Besides nitrates, Kale also has high levels of phytates (~ 0.12 mg / 100 g dry wt) and tannin (~ 0.15 mg / 100 g dry wt) providing ~ 85% of phosphorus. Although phytate exhibits a favorable nutritional role while acting as an antioxidant and anti-cancer agent, simultaneously it also exerts anti-nutritional actions enabling it to chelate minerals like calcium, zinc, and iron including other necessary trace metals causing mineral deficiency in the body [13,14].

Kale contains extraordinary levels of polyphenols (~1167 mg / 100 g dry weight) like ferulic acid and flavonoids (~700 – 900 mg / 100g dry weight) quercitin, kaempferol, hydroxycinnamic acid like chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid. Ferulic, caffeic, and chlorogenic acids are powerful antioxidants. Ferulic acid prevents cell damage, diabetes, and cardiovascular, and even blocks signs of aging and helps regain skin tone [15,16]. Normally, flavonoids exhibit powerful antioxidant actions owing to their phenolic – OH group(s). Kale produces high levels of quercitin (~ 300 mg / 100 g dry weight) and kaempferol (~ 300 – 350 mg / 100 g dry weight). Biologically, quercitin lowers the risk of infection, improves mental health, and enhances physical abilities. It is also anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral. Kaempferol is also an antioxidant. It also possesses anti-inflammatory properties and lowers the risk of chronic diseases particularly cancer [16]. Kale possesses ~ 11.8 % of the dry weight regarding the fatty acid content. They are majorly unsaturated compared to their saturated counterparts. The saturated fatty acid content is 30.0 µg / g whereas the unsaturated ones are 130 µg /g. Those are myristic, pentadecacycilc, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, and lignoceric acids. The unsaturated acids are myristolic, sapienic, palmitolinolenic, oleic, and eicasatenoic. Those are mainly ω – 3, 6, 7, and 9 by nature. These unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids exert a beneficial role in health, particularly in preventing coronary heart disease. Linoleic is the most potent among them. Factually, ω – 3, and 6 provide much assistance for patients surviving myocardial and cardiovascular problems. Those unsaturated fatty acids also show strong antiinflammatory effects additionally, they have positive effects on lowering obesity, improving endothelial function, reducing blood pressure, reducing triglyceride levels, toxicity, and even oral cancers [16].

Kale contains extraordinary levels of polyphenols (~1167 mg / 100 g dry weight) like ferulic acid and flavonoids (~700 – 900 mg / 100g dry weight) quercitin, kaempferol, hydroxycinnamic acid like chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid. Ferulic, caffeic, and chlorogenic acids are powerful antioxidants. Ferulic acid prevents cell damage, diabetes, and cardiovascular, and even blocks signs of aging and helps regain skin tone [15,16]. Normally, flavonoids exhibit powerful antioxidant actions owing to their phenolic – OH group(s). Kale produces high levels of quercitin (~ 300 mg / 100 g dry weight) and kaempferol (~ 300 – 350 mg / 100 g dry weight). Biologically, quercitin lowers the risk of infection, improves mental health, and enhances physical abilities. It is also anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral. Kaempferol is also an antioxidant. It also possesses anti-inflammatory properties and lowers the risk of chronic diseases particularly cancer [16]. Kale possesses ~ 11.8 % of the dry weight regarding the fatty acid content. They are majorly unsaturated compared to their saturated counterparts. The saturated fatty acid content is 30.0 µg / g whereas the unsaturated ones are 130 µg /g. Those are myristic, pentadecacycilc, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, and lignoceric acids. The unsaturated acids are myristolic, sapienic, palmitolinolenic, oleic, and eicasatenoic. Those are mainly ω – 3, 6, 7, and 9 by nature. These unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids exert a beneficial role in health, particularly in preventing coronary heart disease. Linoleic is the most potent among them. Factually, ω – 3, and 6 provide much assistance for patients surviving myocardial and cardiovascular problems. Those unsaturated fatty acids also show strong antiinflammatory effects additionally, they have positive effects on lowering obesity, improving endothelial function, reducing blood pressure, reducing triglyceride levels, toxicity, and even oral cancers [16].

Pharmacological Effects: Kale shows an immense beneficial role in managing human health regarding bilirubin metabolism, macular diseases, protective role in coronary diseases, anti-inflammatory actions, gastrointestinal protection, anti-genotoxicity, inhibiting carcinogenicity, antimicrobial action against specific microbes whereas positive effects on gut microbes. However, there is more to know regarding the activities of Kale on health.

Effect on cognitive function – Extensive studies indicate that adding Kale to the diet offers a protective effect on declining cognitive function. Possibly, lutein which the human body cannot synthesize helps improve or prevent that event. It is only available from food, particularly leafy vegetables, or fruits. The other phytochemicals violaxanthin, neoxanthin, tocopherol, folate, and nitrate also exhibit positive effects in this regard [17,18].

Antiinflammatory effect – Kale possesses versatile anti-inflammatory compounds which are also powerful antioxidants. Among them α – linoleic acid and vitamin K act directly as antiinflammatory nutrients which also help regulate the body’s inflammatory processes. Kale contains numerous polyphenols and sulfur-containing indolic and aliphatic glucosinolates with strong anti-inflammatory properties [19, 20]. Quercitin, kaempferol, and several other flavonoids show anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting PGE2, COX-2, and mPGES-1 generation which are always seen to be upregulated during LPS-induced inflammation [20]. The fermented kale juice also expressed significant antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing inflammatory cytokines like iNOS, COX-2, IL-6, IL-1, and IL-10. Uniquely, fermented kale juice shows extra potential as an antioxidant and subsequently prevents inflammation [21].

Anticancer effect– Kale is heavily enriched with numerous phytocomponents, particularly organosulfur compounds/glucosinolates which have proven capability to lower the risk of cancers [22]. These phytocomponents break down to isothiocyanates inside the body, which in turn induces cancer-preventing enzymes and carcinogenesis [23]. Kale is already known to be a good source of chemopreventive isothiocyanates including allyl isothiocyanate, indole-3-carbinol its metabolic product 3,3`-diindolylmethane, and sulforaphane. Sulforaphane has been known as a strong anticancer medicine. In addition, Kale is also a good source of carotenoids, beta-carotene, lutein, kaempferol, quercitin, vitamin C, and vitamin K. It has been proven that during chopping or chewing, sulforaphane, a known glucosinolate produced from Kale alters gene expression helping rapidly to clear away carcinogenic materials from the body. Sulforaphane induces the production of detoxification enzymes, phase II that deters many cancer-causing substances [24,25]. The enzymes are mostly quinone reductase and glutathione-s-transferase. Experiments have already indicated that quinone reductase can inhibit the growth of cancer cells in vitro. Experiments have further proven that a high intake of cruciferous vegetables reduces the risk of lung cancer by ~ 39% in those having a beneficial variant of the gene, GSTM1 [26].

Effect on breast cancers – For a long time frequent consumption of kale has been known to lower the risk of breast cancer. The phytocomponents in kale show significant effects in regulating receptor expression, promoting apoptosis, suppressing cell cycle progression, and subsequently inhibiting the angiogenesis of various breast cancer cells in humans. Consuming Kale reduces the level of estrogen metabolite 16 – α – hydroxy estrone inside the body which is a breast cancer promoter by way of enhancing the expression of estrogen receptor genes leading to the proliferation of tumor cells [27,28]. Cooking at high temperatures reduces the effectiveness of breast cancer prevention. The ingestion of indole isothiocyanates or other isothiocyanates in kale or other crucifier vegetables exhibits improvement regarding hormone and non-hormone-dependent chemotherapies which is a sign of the effectiveness of epigenetic diet using phytochemicals. Numerous studies have already proven that phytocompounds in cruciferous vegetables can eliminate the threat of cancer [28,29].

Cardioprotective effect – Kale contains versatile phyto-ingredients. Some of them can bolster the cardiac health. For example, potassium (K) lowers blood pressure, fiber reduces cholesterol, magnesium (Mg) also reduces blood pressure, vitamin K eliminates mineralization inside arteries, ω – 3 fatty acids help fight inflammation, and polyphenolics/antioxidants prevent cell damage. Additionally, Kale also provides plenty of folates (vitamin B9) and calcium (Ca) which are beneficial for health [30, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/]. Adding Kale juice to a daily diet reduces serum lipid levels and energizes antioxidant systems thereby lowering the risk of coronary artery disease in patients with hyperlipidemia [30].

Effect on hyperglycemia and diabetes – Numerous research indicates that Kale is highly potent in controlling type-2 diabetes. The consumption of Kale juice for about six weeks can lower the blood glucose level to a significant extent in addition to the body’s fat level also improving insulin resistance in patients with type – 2 diabetes. Reports further show that isothiocyanates like glucoraphanin, sulforaphane, and brassinin can reduce weight gain, fat storage, and also improve glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity by activating the Nrf2 pathway. They inhibit adipocyte differentiation thus reducing the body weight [31]. It is the reason why diabetic patients are often noticed to lose body weight and glucose levels after daily consumption of kale juice [https://www.thehealthsite.com/].

Antioxidant effect – It has been widely noted that high blood glucose levels can produce a large extent of free radicals. Additionally, this free radical generation beyond the neutralizing capacities of endogenous antioxidant defense creates numerous vascular dysfunctions exerting life-threatening adversarial effects on health. The antioxidant molecules supplied from outside food sources can prevent that combative event enabling the maintenance of good health and subsequently reducing the complications of diabetes. They would scavenge those reactive oxygen species (ROS) and offer protection to the organs from any damage.   Kale synthesizes ample antioxidants which can be helpful in that regard, for example, vitamin C, α- linolenic acid, various xanthin, glucosinolates, polyphenols, and flavonoids. Besides diabetes, the antioxidation role also protects from cardiovascular diseases and cancers [32].

Effect on bone health – The large presence of vitamin K is primarily the underlying factor behind the anti-osteoporotic role of Kale. Vitamin K is known to affect blood coagulation and hemostasis. It also helps maintain bone health by reducing the risk of bone fracture in the case of osteoporosis which mainly affects elderly menopausal women. Studies indicate that vitamin K can improve bone health by enhancing bone mineral density thereby preventing osteoporosis-related bone fractures. Vitamin K plays several roles [33]. Acting as a coenzyme it converts glutamic acid in vitamin-K-dependent proteins to γ-carboxy glutamic acid. There are a few vitamin-K-dependent proteins in bone, like osteocalcin, matrix- γ-carboxy glutamic acid, Gas 6, periostin, and protein S [34]. Vitamin K also regulates the transcription of osteoblastic markers, the formation of osteoclasts, and bone resorption. Studies show that low serum levels of vitamin K are associated with increased concentrations of undercarboxylated osteocalcin which increases the risk of bone fractures [34].

Effect on digestive system – Kale is heavily enriched with fiber and water. Therefore even its consumption prevents constipation furthering regularity and helps maintain a healthy digestive tract. Like most cruciferous vegetables, kale also reduces high fat-induced gut inflammation and modulates changes in cecal microbiota composition. Supplementation of kale enhances bacterial metabolic functions, including glycan degradation, thiamine, and xenobiotic metabolism. The large proportion of soluble and insoluble fibers and other chemicals affect gut bacteria species, composition, and diversity leading to serve as a substrate resulting in the proliferation of beneficial bacterial taxa or metabolites that influence the host cellular mechanisms [35, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/270435]. Recent studies further indicate that sulfoquinovose or 6-sulfo-d-quinovose, a sulfonated sugar produced in kale and other leafy greens like spinach, watercress, and mustard greens is the source of energy for growing gut bacteria that helps maintain healthy bacteria and subsequently the digestive health [36].

Effect on skin – Kale has a useful antiaging role on the skin owing to the presence of its major antioxidants and vitamins A, B, C, and K which are known to exert a variety of benefits. Kale keeps skin plump exhibiting youthful appearance. It promotes new skin cell generation for the supply of vitamins A and B whereas vitamin C helps the production of collagen enabling the maintenance of skin firmness. Additionally, the antioxidants in kale protect skin from the damaging effect of generated free radicals due to exposure to sunlight also via anti-inflammatory activities. Vitamin K simultaneously removes discoloration of dark circles under the eyes which is caused by the pooling of blood which Vitamin K can reduce for its ability to clot [https://www.byrdie.com/vitamin-k-for-skin-4801332]. Further, kale successfully abolishes hyperpigmentation of the skin [https://www.shape.com/lifestyle/beauty-style/kale-benefits-for-skin#:~:text=%22Kale%20%5Bcan%5D%20help%20promote,to%20maintain%20firmness%20and%20bounce].

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