Banyan Tree / বট গাছ (Bengali)

“ —-I thought you would become like a great banyan tree and in your shade thousands of people would find shelter” – Ramakrishna Paramhansa to Swami Vivekananda.

General features: It is the national tree of India. The Ficus benghalenis is the acquired botanical name of this plant [1]. The tree is revered in Hinduism at all times, signifying eternal life for its ever-expanding branches and prolonged life period. It provides shade for pedestrians and cattle as a resting place to cool off in the hot tropical sun, earning a gratifying reputation from the public. The plant even earns the name ‘kalpataru,’ meaning tree with wish-fulfilling. It is usually planted near temples and crematoriums for its intimate religious alliance. Due to its vast canopy and wide body with complex networks of stems, it symbolizes strength, resiliency, and unity. The plant is native to the Indian subcontinent and belongs to the Moraceae family of the Ficus genus, which grows in tropical climates. The name ‘Banyan’ appeared because many traders in Western India used to set up shops under its large shade. Since most of them belonged to the Banya (business) community, the Europeans mispronounced the name ‘Banyan’ instead of Banya. It is the English who came out with the name ‘Banyan’ while associating with them during business or trade [2]. Besides the Indian subcontinent, it grows in Hawaii, Florida, and California. The plant can also be spelled as ‘banian, ’ which is a ‘fig’ developing accessory trunks from the prop roots,

Along with age and over time, the downward aerial roots conjoin to form pseudo trunks with the appearance of strangling hosts. Like the other fig trees, banyan also produces fruits with a berry-like appearance called ‘syconium’. Frugivores, the raw fruit-eating animals, disperse the small banyan seeds and help further production. The tree mostly grows in woodlands. It is an invasive species that rapidly dominates the entire landscape, outcompeting the other native plants. The seeds can germinate inside the other plants, and their aerial roots later strangle them to death. The figs/berries are edible to humans. They are red when ripe and about 0.25 inches in diameter.  The leaves are large, green, glossy, and elliptical in appearance. They are 5 – 8 inches long and 3 – 4 inches wide. The leaf bud is covered by two large scales. With development, the leaves’ scales abscise [5]. The trees produce a sappy matter that contains ficin, a proteolytic enzyme that is toxic to humans and pets. When it comes into contact with the skin, it is irritable, but it can kill warts and help combat inflammation. The tree has plenty of medicinal properties. The different plant parts have been used for centuries in several traditional or Ayurvedic medicines all over India to treat various illnesses majorly related to inflammation. The leaves are used to treat diarrhea and dysentery. Its consumption helps women strengthen uterine muscles during pregnancy. The bark extract controls diabetes. The pastes prepared from roots can firm skin and also find application for cleaning teeth and fighting gum diseases. In India, banyan trees are always a symbol of life, indicating longevity, stability, growth, and vitality [6]. In the Hindu religion, the banyan tree symbolizes life, fertility, and resurrection. The tree has a special cultural, mythological, and historical significance in India. It is often named ‘Kalpavriksha’; Kalpa signifies wishes, presumably the tree can fulfill dreams and desires. The tree bark represents Lord Vishnu, the roots symbolize Lord Brahma, and the branches represent Lord Shiva. Hindus believe that this plant is highly sacred, and its leaves are the resting place of Lord Krishna. The mythology says that Savitri, a Hindu woman, worshipping this tree on an auspicious moment of Jayestha Poornima brought back her husband’s life from Yamraj (God of death). From then on, it became a ritual of Hindu women to worship this tree for the long life of their husbands. According to Agni Purana, the Banyan tree stands as a symbol of fertility. The tree has been mentioned even in Vedas and is associated with the most important Hindu Gods like Brahma, Visnu, and Shiva. Hindus revere the plant all over the nation.

Traditional medicinal actions: In Ayurveda, the Banyan tree is considered to be the most glorified and sacred plant, having an immense ethnobotanical history and providing a vast medicinal role in many Ayurvedic formulations. It is popularly known as Vatta in Ayurveda. For centuries, various parts (bark, leaves, aerial roots, and latex) of this plant have been used as medicine to treat numerous illnesses like diarrhea, dysentery, piles, gum diseases, skin diseases, ulcers, joint pain, diabetes, and even female infertility. Milky latex exerts an anti-inflammatory action and is often applied topically to wounds and bruises [7]. Leaf extract can relieve ulcers, diarrhea, dysentery, diabetes, and leprosy. The alcoholic leaf extract helps women during pregnancy by strengthening uterine muscles. The extract from the bark can control diabetes. Paste prepared from roots has a cosmetic role by firming/tightening the skin. Its twigs can clean teeth and act against gum disease [6]. It also promotes hair growth and is applied to mouth sores, scabies, fever, atrophy, and even insanity [7,8,9].

Plant parts	Applications
Leaf	To treat chronic diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, vaginal infections, wounds, abscesses, pimples, and skin problems.
Stem bark	To treat nervous disorders, leucorrhea, diarrhea, asthma, urinary problems, cold cough, Piles, and dysentery.
Latex	It is used to treat nervous disorders, leucorrhea, diarrhea, asthma, urinary problems, cold cough, Piles, and dysentery.
Aerial roots	To treat jaundice, joint pain, leucorrhea, diarrhea, vomiting, excessive hair fall, morning sickness, and excessive bleeding during menstruation.
Buds and fruits	To treat diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhage, and biliary complications.

Ethnomedicinal applications [10].

History:  It has been recorded that during the Asian campaign, Alexander’s troops, the first Europeans, found the banyan trees in the Indus valley, which stunned them owing to their unique features and enormity. They described its features to Theophrastus (371 – 287 BC), the famed Greek naturalist, philosopher, and father of today’s botany, which greatly impressed him. Historically, in Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, and later in many Hindu scriptures, a great many stories have mentioned the banyan tree. Over a few millennia, in the Indus civilization, people have portrayed the banyan tree as a symbol of strength and resilience and a part of the cultural fabric. Numerous mythical stories have been built around their distinctive appearance. One of them is about Kabir’s tree, planted nearly 550 years ago. According to it, the great sage poet, while living on an island near India’s Narmada River, used to brush his teeth using its twig. One day, he threw the twig after brushing his teeth on the ground. In a moment, a gigantic banyan tree sprang up, casting shade over a hectare of land, which is now considered to be one of the biggest banyan plants in the world. In 1794, British historian Thomas Maurice described the Kabir’s tree, indicating its 350 or more false trunks, each one of them wider than an English oak. It also has 3000 smaller stems. According to the locals, it is almost 3000 years old and existed far before Kabir, raising a possibility that it would be the same one that Alexander’s army found on the riverside in India around 326 BC. To the locals, the tree stands as a symbol of life, fertility, and resurrection. The legend says that it was the only thing that survived the great deluge in the epic. To demean the Hindu faith, the British rulers often used them for gallows to execute the freedom fighters who resisted their rule. After the independence, India brought back its dignity, selecting it as a national tree [11].

Phytoconstituents and biochemical properties: The numerous chemical analysis indicates that the plant majorly contains phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, steroids, glycosides, essential/volatile oils, sugars, and proteins. Plant extracts demonstrate numerous biological activities, including antioxidants, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, wound healing, anticoagulant, immunomodulatory, antistress, and mosquitocidal effects. The contents and nature of ingredients vary somewhat in different parts of the plant but not severely [12].

Leaf – Phenolics, terpenoids/terpenes, and others; Bark – Phenolics, terpenoids/terpenes, and others; Aerial root – Terpenoids/terpenes, and others; Fruits – Various mixed components.

The leaves and bark are enriched with flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids, and terpenes. Leaves also synthesize quinone and furanocoumarins like rhein, psoralen, and bergapten. They all possess large biological activities, for example, rhein, an anthraquinone derivative that acts hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory agent. Psoralen is a furocoumarin with a keto (= CO) group at the 7-position that can intercalate with DNA, inhibiting its synthesis and cell division, which is mostly used in photochemotherapy in the presence of high-intensity long UVA radiation to treat psoriasis and skin cancers [13]. Bergapten, a 5-methoxy psoralen, is a suspected cancer-causing agent and a potent mutagen having chromosome aberration role but has anti-inflammatory properties, often used in treating psoriasis [14]. The extracts of the root have sterols and organic fatty acids, whereas fruit extracts are rich in fatty acids [12].

Besides plant parts, the tree acts as a host of parasitic ecosystems for numerous endophytic fungi. They inhabit the host plant while living in the plant’s tissues, setting up a mutual/symbiotic relationship and causing no harm to the host. These fungi also play a definitive role in assisting plant defense by producing several bioactive components [15]. In addition to the fungi, Bacillus subtilis (catalase-positive bacterium) has also been identified and isolated from the aerial root. Uniquely, it synthesizes two antifungal compounds surfactins and iturins [12].

Surfactin is an antibiotic and has a surfactant property, enabling it to act as an antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and hemolytic agent [16]. Iturin is also a potent antifungal compound/polypeptide [17]. The fungi also synthesize other ingredients, for example, phenols, flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids [18].

The phenolic compounds are overwhelmingly flavonoids, which can be extracted in significant amounts either in aqueous or hydroalcoholic media. They provide cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative activities by scavenging free radicals, enhancing endothelial-derived NO activity, preventing low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol oxidation, inhibiting endothelial activation inhibition, and also inhibiting platelet aggregation, thereby lowering the risk of thrombosis [19]. Numerous terpenoids have been identified in plants, such as lupeol, α – amyrin, betulinic acid, and friedelin, particularly in stem bark and leaves. Bengalensinone, a new triterpene identified in the methanolic extract of the aerial root, shows inhibitory potential against cholinesterase enzymes in a dose-dependent manner, IC50 ~ 194.5 µM for acetylcholinesterase and 120 µM for butyrylcholinesterase, indicating its possible use against Alzheimer’s disorder [20]. Epifriedelanol and friedelin possess potent thrombolytic actions [21]. The heartwood contains β – β-sitosterol and taraxasterol, which have several biological properties [22].

Major Phytochemicals

Pharmacological effects: The plant has a multitude of pharmacological roles in preventing and curing numerous diseases and disorders.

Antioxidant effects – It has been defined as the ability to inhibit the oxidation process via free radical scavenging, thus reducing oxidative stress. In physiological events, the generation of oxidative stress produces free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are identified as the primary source of inflammation and are intimately associated with diseases like diabetes, cancer, aging, cardiovascular, and other metabolic disorders. Antioxidants can prevent them by preventing oxidative stress through free radical scavenging, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, or by following similar mechanisms. Supplementing natural extracts from outer sources like the banyan plant parts is a simple way of enriching the body with antioxidants to prevent those deadly ailments. The ethanolic extract of banyan fruits shows 50% inhibition of scavenging ability against DPPH is, IC₅₀ ~ 32.20 µg / ml. The IC₅₀ values against NO and -OH ions are approximately 57.74 µg/ml and 34.37 µg/ml, respectively. Similar actions are also noted in the case of leaf extracts by alcohol, n-hexane, water, or chloroform [10].

Anticancer/antimitotic/antitumor/antiproliferative effects – In physiology, any abnormality or change produced during cellular division results in malignancy or cancer [23]. Further, the unrelenting proliferation of malignant cells often tends to metastasize, lowering life expectancy to a significant extent. The butanol-extracted stem bark of the banyan plant shows strong antiproliferative and antitumor actions [24]. Potent antimitotic behavior has been noticed in methanol and n-butanol extracted fractions. The major mechanism involved is the induction of chromosomal and mitotic aberrations. The accumulation of prophases and sticky chromosomes at metaphase followed by spindle disturbance at prophases and anaphases bridges have been noticed [12]. The latex extracted by various solvents indicates antiproliferative activities on human breast, colorectal, lymphocytes, and neuroblastoma cell lines [25]. The ethyl acetate extract of aerial roots has shown anticancer actions on lung cancer (A549, IC₅₀ ~ 17.81 µg / ml), breast cancer (MDA-MB-231, IC₅₀ ~ 97.89 µg / ml), and cervical cancer (Hela, IC₅₀ ~ 49.27 µg / ml) cell lines [26].

Anti-inflammatory effects – In fact, inflammation is a healing process that occurs against harmful stimuli like pathogens, damaged cells, toxic compounds, or irradiation. But it is also associated with diseases like cancer, diabetes, or cardiovascular problems. Numerous phytocompounds show a potential to combat inflammatory events. The most common one is the healing action of skin or soft tissues after injury and subsequent induction of collagen production followed by epithelial tissue regeneration. The ethanolic extract of leaves is seen to accelerate the wound-healing process in animal experiments [27]. Further, the oral administration of the extract (250 – 500 mg/kg) effectively reduces the ulcer index in aspirin-induced rats. The anti-ulcer potential is due to its action against the 5-lipoxygenase pathway induced by aspirin. The disruption stimulates prostaglandin synthesis to help protect the gastric mucosa [28]. Similar effects are noticed in other animal models [29]. Besides ulcers, arthritis is also counted as a chronic inflammatory disease. In that regard, the ethanol extract of stem bark has shown a considerable anti-arthritic effect when tested on Fraund’s complete adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. The extract is largely enriched with terpenoids, saponins, flavonoids, and phenols [30]. The aqueous root extract (100 – 200 mg / Kg) can also block pain sensation caused by inflammation when tested in Swiss albino mice following hot-plate, tail-flick, and writhing tests. All these experiments have established the potent analgesic actions of the banyan root [31].

Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effects – Diabetes is a diverse disease portrayed as a defect in glucose and fat metabolism affecting a large number of people. It is a chronic endocrine disorder that raises blood glucose levels either due to insufficiency of insulin secretion or its action or even both. The ethanolic extract of stem bark, fruits, and aerial roots has shown anti-diabetic activities in numerous animal models. A significant dose-dependent reduction in alloxan-induced diabetic rats was noticed. The effect is comparable to Glibenclamide. The fruit extract is seen as more effective than the others [32]. Experiments have further shown that bark extract can reduce the blood glucose level in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, enhancing the insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells. The effect is also dose-dependent [33]. A glycoside of Leucopelarogonidin isolated from the stem bark has shown considerable hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and serum insulin-rising effects in diabetic rats. The enhancement of insulin is due to stimulation and its concomitant secretion from the islets of Langerhans [34]. The other flavonoids like kaempferol, apigenin, and 3,4`,5,7- tetrahydroxy-3` methoxy flavones in the extracts also have a strong glucose regulating role, enabling them to control diabetes. Besides lowering blood glucose, the leaf extract also reduces LDL cholesterol by ~60%, serum cholesterol by ~ 59%, and triglycerides by ~ 54%, simultaneously decreasing lipid peroxidation event and improving glutathione levels in circulation [35].

Memory-enhancing, anxiolytic, and anti-depressant effects – The methanol extract of bark shows anti-amnesic, anti-anxiolytic, and antidepressant effects in scopolamine-induced behavioral animal models. The isolated compounds show interactions with serotonergic, glutamatergic, cholinergic, and GABAergic systems in the brain, improving memory, reducing anxiety, and alleviating depression [36]. The extract even has a positive role in cognitive enhancement in both young and old mice [37]. Further oral introduction of aqueous root extract produces memory-enhancing, anxiolytic, muscle-relaxing, and seizure-modifying actions without exerting any toxicity, indicating its possible interactions with muscarinic receptors in the brain. Similar effects have been noticed in leaf extract, which also ameliorates cognitive functions in scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats [39].

Hepatoprotective effect – The liver is an important organ involved in controlling metabolism, secretion, storage, and detoxifying activity. Any problems in this organ will distort these functions. Thus, protecting the liver is a crucial act to maintain a healthy body. It has been noticed that in carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) -induced hepatotoxicity in albino rats or Tylenol–induced hepatic damage, the oral administration of banyan latex provides considerable improvement in liver functions with a significant reduction in SGOT, SGPT, bilirubin, and alkaline phosphatase also improving the total protein level [40]. The fruit extract by ethanol also alleviates hepatotoxicity induced by silymarin in goat [41]. Further, the methanolic extract of prop roots, when orally administered to isoniazid-rifampicin-induced hepatotoxic animals for three week,s shows an antidote effect. An identical effect has also been noticed when latex fraction is orally introduced to thioacetamide-induced toxicity in the liver of rats [42].

Antimicrobial effects – The extracts of pop roots by ethanol or methanol exert potent antibacterial activity against E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staph aureus, Vibrio anguillarium, and many others [43]. The stem bark extract also strongly acts against a few bacterial strains like Klebsiella pneumonia, E. Coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staph aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Additionally, both roots, leaves, and bark extract also display antifungal activities [44].

Mosquito larvicidal effects – The methanol extract of leaves has shown considerable larvicidal effects on three mosquito species after 24 hours of treatment. They are Anopheles stephensi, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Aedes aegypti. Other studies have also established that leaf extract by methanol also has a larvicidal effect in the case of instar larvae of Anopheles subpictus and Culex tritaeniorhynchus [45].

Anticoagulant and platelet anti-aggregating effects – The water-soluble fractions of ethanol extract of leaves (8 mg/ml) exert strong anti-aggregating effects on platelets against ADP-induced aggregation studies in vitro by 77.26 ± 0.7 % with IC₅₀ 4.87 ± 0.38 mg/ml [46]. The crude methanol extract of leaves after further fractionation by ethyl acetate, n-hexane, or chloroform has shown significant anticoagulant action concerning delayed “prothrombin time” (21.7 ± 1.2 s) compared to normal control (13.3 ± 0.6 s). The prothrombin values for n-hexane range from 17.3 ± 0.9 to 21.0 ± 1.0 s, chloroform and ethylacetate range from 17.7 ± 0.7 to 22.0 ± 1.1 and 17.8 ± 0.9 to 24.0 ± 1.5 s, respectively. It also enhances considerably activated thromboplastin time, indicating the anticoagulant activity of the fractions [47].

Hypotensive effects – In normotensive and angiotensin II-induced hypertensive rats, the aqueous extract of the stem bark exerts significant hypotensive effects. The intravenous injection of aqueous extract (10mg/Kg) reduces systolic, diastolic, mean arterial blood pressure, and heart rate in normotensive rats compared to the control group by 10, 17, and 29%. In angio II-induced hypertensive animals, the decreases are 27, 30, and 29% with simultaneous heart rate lowering [48].

Toxicity and other adverse effects: Continuing two weeks of oral administration of whole plant extract to female mice at dosages of 2000 to 5000 mg/Kg of body weight has shown no sign of toxicity [49]. So far, no adverse effects have ever been reported, indicating toxicity of the plant.

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