Achyranthes aspera / Apamarga (Sanskrit)/ Chirchira (Hindi) / Apang (Bengali)

General features: The botanical name is Achyranthes aspera (AA), an ancient Ayurvedic medicinal plant belonging to the Amaranthaceae family of the Achyranthes genus. The English name is either Chaff-flower or Devil’s horsewhip. The plant grows in tropical climates, including India, Australia, Africa, Southeast Asian nations, and the South Pacific Islands. Due to its widespread use as a medicinal herb throughout India, the plant is known by various individual names in different regional Indian languages. In many countries, AA is considered to be a weed or invasive species, despite having large medicinal values.  The Sanskrit name is ‘Apamarga’, which means “to whip” or “to wash”. AA exists in two varieties, white and red. It could be annual or perennial. The plant has a straight stem and a woody base and grows 3 – 7 ft high and is pointy and ribbed in appearance. The leaves are oval-shaped and attached diametrically to both sides of the stem. They are 1.2 – 7.0 x 1.0 – 2.5 inches long and wide. The small flowers, 0.3 inches, are greenish white, and the fruits are tiny, oblong utricles, and reddish brown. The seeds are endospermic, with a curved embryo ~ 0.1 inch long and black. Flowering and fruiting occur between September to April [1]. The different parts of AA are used as active remedies, recorded in region-specific native prescriptions to address various health problems, such as relieving toothaches, cough, and night blindness, as well as an eye salve for corneal opacities. In the old days, as specified in history, particularly in Rajasthan, during food scarcity, seeds were used to make flour for bread, called Bharotha [1]. In general, AA is traditionally used for medicinal reasons only, in most cases against skin disorders, bad ulcers, fungal infections, sinus infections, and mouth-associated diseases [2].

History of Achyranthes aspera / Apamarga: AA bears a great story in Hindu mythology behind its use. According to the Krishna Yajurveda, Indra, the king of Heaven, or the Celestial estate, after destroying several powerful demons (Vritra), was finally trounced by Namuchi/Namasu, the son of powerful Asura King, Mahabali who is also the great grandson of Prahlada, the most exemplary devotee of Lord Vishnu. So, Indra promised never to attempt to kill him in the future with anything, using neither solid nor liquid materials, whether in the day or at night. It was Indra’s peace settlement with Namuchi. But trickily, Indra collected some foamy venom, which he considered neither solid nor liquid, and eventually, using it, killed Namuchi at daybreak between night and day. Surprisingly, from the head of the dead Namuchi, this herb Apamarga sprang up. Thereafter, using this herb, Indra conquered all the demons of the universe. In that way, the herb has earned a reputation for having a powerful ingredient to paralyze powerful snakes and scorpions [2,3]. Even though it is metaphorical, as mentioned in Ayurveda, the seeds, flowers, and leaves are frequently used to treat different ailments and snake or scorpion bites. An entire chapter has been named “Apamarga Tanduliay” in Charaka Samhita, the ancient Indian apothecary, Ayurveda. According to it, AA balances, bringing ‘Kapha’ and ‘Doshas’, or maintaining homeostasis in the body. Atharvaveda, the specialized version of ancient Indian apothecary, says that AA/Apamarga is the lord of all plants that exist on earth. As per Ayurveda, AA/ Apamarga was in use for a long time as a powerful anti-inflammatory agent. In addition, it cures hemorrhoids, an upset stomach, jaundice, and snake bites. It also cures infertility and physical weakness. Instances also indicate that AA is used to treat bronchitis, cough, rheumatism, malaria fever, dysentery, asthma, hypertension, and diabetes. It is claimed that AA can get rid of any diseases from the human body [4].

Traditional medicinal uses and health benefits: In traditional uses, AA of either variety, white or red, is used normally as powder, a paste, or fresh juice. Both varieties of AA are equally effective. Below is the list of several traditional or folk uses of AA/Apamarga as indicated by way of Ayurveda [2,4].

  1. It helps digestion by removing ama toxins, helping metabolism work better.
  2. It provides cardiovascular help, removing cholesterol deposits, smoothing blood flow, and rejuvenating the cardiac muscle.
  3. It acts as a diuretic, also enabling to breaking of kidney and bladder stones.
  4. It cures a cough by breaking up mucus in the lungs or throat. It even prevents frequent coughing and is considered a strong remedy for a cold.
  5. It serves as a natural remedy for snake, dog, and scorpion bites.
  6. It can control problems of uncontrollable hunger by suppressing the appetite.
  7. AA can cleanse the body by getting rid of toxins built up, thereby balancing the system.
  8. In overall aspects, this herb makes anyone feel better when sick, especially due to vomiting.
  9. It helps heal wounds, cuts, and scrapes of the skin.
  10. It is also used in the case of dropsy.

Following the prior knowledge, indicated in the aforementioned parameters, in some places in India and Southeast Asian nations, people in remote areas follow folk treatments using AA/Apamarga. Studies have shown that the plant extract tastes bitter and pungent. The pureed plant, after boiling in water, is often used to treat pneumonia. The infusion made of roots has astringency and provides for bowel complaints to act as a laxative or purgative. The paste prepared from ground seeds with water is externally applied against snakes, scorpions, reptiles, or any animal bites. It is also applied to night blindness and cutaneous diseases [5,6]. It can cure hemorrhoids. The extract of leaves and seeds is emetic, carminative, reduces swelling, helps digestion, gastric disorders, and expels phlegm. [7,8]. The slim twig is used to brush teeth in many rural areas, helping to protect against gum disease. Paste made of fresh leaves alleviates pain from a wasp bite. It is used against liver complaints, scabies, and skin diseases. The extracted oil from AA is employed as a nervine tonic to reduce anxiety, stress, and insomnia [9].

Distribution of Major Phyto-contents

Plant partsPhytochemicals
RootsOleanolic acid, Amino acid, Steroids, Alkaloids, Triterpenoids, Coumarins, Ecdysterone, Achyranthine, Glycosides, Tannins, and Saponins.
SeedsLinoleic acid, Oleic acid, Palmitic acid, Stearic acid, and Behenic acid.
ShootsDihydroxy hexapenta, triacontanol, 27-cyclohexyl heptacosane 7-ol, 17-penta-triacontanol, 16-hydroxy-26-methyl heptacosane-2-1.

Phytochemical constituents and associated biological actions: AA contains a variety of chemical ingredients that are responsible for its medicinal or pharmacological properties. Among those, the significant biologically active components are alkaloids, triterpenoid saponins, triterpene steroids, long-chain alcohols, and a few steroidal hormones. The long chain alcohols are 27-cyclohexyheptacosan-7-ol, 16-hydroxy-26-methyl heptacosan-2-one, and 17-pentatriacontanol. The alkaloids are shown below.

Alkaloids from AA/Apamarga exert a significant therapeutic role. It triggers apoptosis in breast cancer cells, preventing cell growth. Betaine is one of them, considered to be an anticancer drug that induces p53 expression, decreases telomere length, and helps the anticancer properties [10]. Indole-3-carboxaldehyde and N-trans-feruloytyramine are neuroactive, causing sedation and antidepression. N-trans-feruloytyramine reduces ROS generation, thus lowering the risks of oxidative stress. Indole-3-carboxaldehyde inhibits the neurotoxic proteins Aβ and tau, associated with dementia, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s diseases, controlling homocysteine levels and preventing inflammation in the brain [11]. The alkaloid fraction also has shown antimicrobial activity, which occurs due to its binding to DNA and interfering with protein synthesis and arresting the bacterial growth [12]. It also exerts additional effects, acting as an abortifacient, expectorant, emetic, and renal dropsy; however, no specific ones have been identified yet [13]. Furthermore, achyranthine, another member, exhibits a versatile role, acting as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory agent. It is a potent drug used to treat many neurodegenerative diseases [11]. Cuscohygrine in AA also offers numerous benefits, acting as a pain-relieving, wound-healing, antimicrobial, and antioxidant agent [13].

The role of flavonoids in AA is plentiful and beneficial. Acting as antioxidants, they combat oxidative stress, preventing and curing chronic metabolic ailments like cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases. They mainly act by scavenging free radicals to protect cells from oxidative damage. The flavonoids of AA reduce inflammation by modulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and preventing arthritis and several inflammatory diseases. In this way, the anti-asthmatic action is attributed to the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. Flavonoids also offer cardiovascular protection and anticancer actions. The neuroprotection provided by AA is due to flavonoid glycosides, and the important one is hyperoside, acting along with others, preventing Aβ-induced brain cell damage and disruption of the blood-brain barrier, reversing mitochondrial disruption, inhibiting apoptosis or neuroinflammation [11,14,15]. It also helps neurogenesis, promoting neuron growth and differentiation, which is beneficial to treat neurodegenerative diseases or injuries [11].

Saponins from AA provide numerous health benefits, like anti-obesity, reducing serum lipids, acting as antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory agents. They even offer neuroprotection, enabling to control of neurodegenerative diseases [16]. Regarding anti-obesity, these saponins show the ability to reduce intestinal lipid absorption, enhance lipid secretion, and aid weight control. They also lower elevated blood glucose levels, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and subsequently enhance HDL-cholesterol [16,17]. The anti-inflammatory role is based on preventing the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The neural protection is due to improving mitochondrial function, leading to a reduction in the production of neurotoxic proteins, simultaneously restoring synaptic plasticity [11,15]. Its other potential benefits involve cardiovascular modulation, wound healing, maintaining kidney health, and antimicrobial activities. Moreover, it helps combat oxidative stress by acting as a powerful antioxidant, which is associated with many chronic diseases [15].

AA synthesizes plenteous steroids and terpenoids like β-sitosterol, spinasterol, and several others of that kind, including a vitamin D3 derivative, mostly in roots and leaves. The major components are shown below. Those compounds have an eminent physiological role. They offer neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities, which also help wound healing, promoting tissue generation [13]. Regarding neuroprotective activity, AA helps alleviate excitotoxicity. Ca+2 overload and mitochondrial dysfunction. It also inhibits deposition of Aβ plaque and associated synaptic toxicity, thereby reducing neuroinflammation as well as neurotoxicity, subsequently promoting neurogenesis. The anti-inflammatory action occurs by inhibiting the transcription as well as release of cytokines like IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β. The extracts also inhibit acetylcholinesterase, increasing the levels of acetylcholine, which potentially improves cognitive function, helping those suffering from dementia or Alzheimer’s disorder [11]. It also offers potent immunomodulatory activity. Further, ecdysterone is often used as a nutritional supplement, providing anabolic effects, to build muscle cells [18,19].

AA’s phenolic compounds have important health benefits, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and anticancer properties.  In that way, it provides diverse therapeutic uses [20]. Studies indicate that the AA fraction enriched with phenolic compounds enhances the activity of antioxidant enzymes, e.g., catalase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione reductase, and superoxide dismutase. The compounds also neutralize the generated free radicals, thus combating oxidative stress linked to chronic metabolic diseases like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular, and neurological problems. It also offers antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, and cardioprotective effects [21].

Fatty acids of AA have multiple actions that include being the structural ingredients of the cell surface membrane, precursors of signaling molecules, and energy storage. They also promote bioactivity, particularly regarding antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects, found in seeds and leaves [22].

Pharmacological effects: The traditional medicinal activities have already provided ample evidence concerning the pharmacological effects of AA/Apamarga. Below are several of the extra credentials and facts about its pharmacological role.

Spermicidal effect – The hydroalcoholic, n-hexane, and chloroform extracts of roots or plants show spermicidal action in humans and experimental rat sperm. They are effective in sperm immobilization, viability, acrosome status, 5`-nucleotidase activity, and chromatin condensation [23]. Uniquely, the ethanolic extract of roots provides post coital antifertility action in female albino rats. It also shows an 83% anti-implantation effect if given orally, 200mg/Kg body weight [24]. The methanolic leaf extract shows activity, which is related to its abortifacient behavior, determined by counting dead fetuses in vivo [25]. Almost similar abortifacient action is also observed in mice while using the benzene extract of the whole plant [26]. N-butanol fraction of the aerial parts of AA exhibits contraceptive and hormonal properties [27].

Cardiovascular effect – The water-soluble alkaloid, achyranthine from AA, decreases blood pressure and heart rate, dilates blood vessels, and increases the rate and amplitude of respiration in frogs and dogs. Its contractile effect (0.5 mg/ml) is less than acetylcholine (0.1 mg/ml), but the spasmogenic effect is not blocked by tubocurarine [28]. On the other hand, a mixture of saponins from AA increases the force of contraction of the isolated guinea pig, frog, and rabbit hearts. The stimulation occurs at lower doses (1 – 50 µg), which can be blocked by pronethalol (a non-selective β-blocker) or partially by mepyramine (antihistaminic drug, H1 receptor inverse agonist). Interestingly, at higher doses of saponin, the effect could not be blocked by pronethalol. Additionally, saponins increase the tone of the hypodynamic heart (lower cardiac output) also the force of contraction of the failing papillary muscle [29]. The perfusion study of the isolated rat heart demonstrates that stimulant action on the myocardium induces an increase in the activity of the enzyme Phosphorylase A, while maintaining the total phosphorylase activity constant.  Adrenaline exerts a similar effect. It is thus speculated that the saponins may work by releasing adrenaline bound in the heart cells. Although the direct effect cannot be ruled out [30].

Anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effect – The anti-inflammatory activity of AA potentially relies on its numerous bioactive phyto-components like flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, steroids, and triterpenoids. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that different extracts and fractions can ably inhibit inflammation, including cultured murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7, and formaldehyde-induced arthritis. α-spinasterol, abundantly produced in AA, efficiently reduces inflammation in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells by inhibiting the NF-κβ pathway, simultaneously activating the Nrf2 path [31,32]. The water-soluble alkaloid achyranthine has also shown its anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects [33]. Studies have also shown that the saponin-rich fraction can potently reduce inflammation and improve the histology of joints in arthritic models [34]. The extracts inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators, IL-6, PGE2, and TNF-α. Additionally, it prevents the expression of COX-2 and 5-LOX, the crucial enzymes involved in inflammation and wound healing [32,35].

Analgesic and antipyretic effect – The alcoholic or aqueous extracts of leaves and stems show considerable analgesic activity in laboratory rats. The pain-relieving effect is almost comparable to that of aspirin, as determined by performing the acetic acid-induced writhing test and hot plate and tail-flick experiments. The effect is seen dose-dependent and could be due to the presence of flavonoids and terpenoids. The effect is more pronounced in the case of the ethanol extract of leaves, and the peak is reached after one hour [36]. AA also demonstrates an antipyretic effect. It is seen that leaf extract can reduce fever induced by brewer’s yeast, which is also similar to aspirin. Achyranthine, an alkaloid, is identified to be one of the responsible components, but others also play a significant antipyretic action. The extract lowers the fever within 0.5 hours [37].

Antidiabetic effect – AA shows a great potential in managing diabetes, offering its convincing ability to reduce blood glucose levels in both normal and diabetic animals [38]. The oral administration of the dried ethanol extract of AA leaves induces hypoglycemia in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic animals, indicating that the effect might be due to the inhibition of glucose absorption from the intestine or owing to the enhancement of glucose transport from the blood [39]. Studies further demonstrate that AA upregulates the GLUT2 protein expression in pancreatic β-cells thus enhancing insulin secretion and the glucose absorption in liver, possibly due to its antioxidants, responsible to lower the oxidative stress, which accounts for the malfunctioning of β-cells of the pancreas, causing a reduction of insulin secretion, creating diabetes [40].

Antioxidant effect – AA extracts deliver a significant antioxidant effect, which is highly beneficial to health. The effect is associated with its numerous phytochemicals, such as flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, or tannins [41]. The extracts exhibit the ability to scavenge free radicals, enabling them to combat oxidative stress involved in many chronic metabolic diseases [15]. The antioxidant effect provides cardio protection, reducing lipid peroxidation and protecting against coronary artery disease [16]. The antiinflammatory role of AA depends mostly on its antioxidant capacity, which offers neuroprotection, avoiding neurodegenerative diseases produced by oxidative stress. The phyto-components inhibit inflammatory cytokines and block inflammatory pathways in glial cells, thereby providing neuroprotection [11]. It helps prevent cancer by providing subsequent treatments.  The compounds enhance mitochondrial membrane potential, reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and inhibit the release of mitochondrial cytochrome C, crucial for energy production and maintaining health [11]. The antioxidant activity also has a considerable role in wound healing [42].

Anti-depressant effect – The extract of AA and one of its alkaloids, Betaine, normalizes stress-induced changes in brain areas like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. It also reduces elevated levels of plasma corticosterone and inflammatory markers, TNF-α, IL-6, while increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) linked to neuronal growth and survival. It has been further noticed that hexatriacontane, an alkane in AA, possibly contributes to antidepressant actions by enhancing serotonin release. AA even normalizes the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), which is disrupted in the case of depression. AA also exhibits beneficial effects in epilepsy, anxiety, and cereboprotection [43,44,45].

Anti-cancer effect – It has been observed that AA can exert an anticancer effect by suppressing the growth of cancer/ tumor cells, inducing apoptosis, or modulating signaling pathways during cancer progression. The studies are conducted using cell lines from the liver, colon, pancreas, lung, and many other cancers [46]. The programmed cell death, or apoptosis, involves mitochondrial dysfunction with the activation of caspases, the key enzymes responsible for this event [47]. Research also shows that AA interferes with the strategic signaling pathways linked with cancer progression, like the protein kinase Cα pathway (PKCα) involved in cancer cell growth and survival. Uniquely, different ways of extraction or different parts of the plant have shown some selectivity toward the nature of cancer cells [48]. The methanol extract of leaves selectively suppresses the genes linked to pancreatic cancer, like MMP-1&2, TMP-2, VEGF-A &B [49]. The in vivo animal studies have further shown that AA can prevent tumor growth by interfering with the related signaling pathways [50]. The extract of by 70% ethanol exerts a significant anticancer effect on liver and colon cancer cells. The identified liable components are alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, and terpenoids that induce strong cytotoxicity [46].

Antimicrobial effect – The extracts of seeds and leaves have demonstrated considerable antimicrobial and antifungal effects. The ethanol extract of seeds has shown modest antimicrobial actions against E. coli, B. subtilis, and P. aeruginosa. The leaf extract by methanol shows antibacterial and antifungal activities toward E. coli, P. aeruginosa, P. vulgaris, S. aureus, and Klebsiella [7,51]. The antifungal action of AA is possibly due to 17-pentatriaconnol present in the oil. The other identified components liable for the antibacterial effect are the triterpenoid saponins, which show dosedependent inhibition against S. aureus (IC50  ~ 0.15 mg/ml) [52].

Miscellaneous effects –

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