Purslane / Pursley / Ajmoda (Hindi)/ Nunia(নুনিয়া /Bengali)

Purslane/Pursley is actually a highly valuable medicinal herb.

General Features: The botanical name is Portulaca oleracea (PO), commonly known as purslane or, more colloquially, pursley. In Hindi or Sanskrit, it is called Ajmood or Ajmoda. Its Bengali name is Nunia saag/ নুনিয়া শাক or simply নুনিয়া / Nunia.  The plant is perennial in a tropical climate; otherwise, it is annual in other weather. PO closely resembles coriander/chilantro (Dhaniya, Indian name) in appearance, with stems and leaves that are almost identical; it is also frequently used in Indian cuisines, offering a savory, lemony, and peppery flavor. The plant is an extremely nutritious herb widely used in salads, soups, and cooked dishes.  In Mexican cuisines, and particularly in Greek salads, it is used frequently. The entire plant, stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds, are quite edible. If cooked, it turns gelatinous, thickening soups or other cooked items. It is rich in omega-3 fatty acids (ALA), vitamins (A, C, and E), and minerals (Ca, Mg, and Fe), making it a healthy garnish for food. It helps manage blood glucose and maintain bone health. According to the World Health Organization, PO is the most used medicinal plant in the world, consumed in food. The leaves are rich in antioxidants and can also improve sleep and help control blood pressure [1]. It can be substituted for spinach. It is a succulent plant and belongs to the Portulacaceae family of the Portulaca genus [2]. The plant grows from the taproot, with protruding secondary roots. It can reach ~16 inches high, bearing smooth, reddish, horizontal stems. The leaves are alternate and opposite, clustered at the joints or ends. The flowers are yellow and 0.25 inches wide and grow at the center of the leaf cluster. The pod inside the flowers opens up when the seeds are mature and tends to germinate at about 25ºC or a bit higher.

History of purslane/purseley and its uses: The use of purslane spans over a few millennia. It is a highly nutritious, ancient vegetable or herb, presumably originating in South and Central Asia, the Mediterranean, and North Africa. Its use has been recorded in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, either in food or medicine. PO has also been mentioned in Ayurveda, the ancient Indian apothecary. The great Roman naturalist and physician, Pliny the Elder, revealed the herb in his book “Naturalis Historia” in the 1st century AD, regarding its use for headaches and inflammation. In the medieval period, Arabs knew about this herb and transported it to Europe around the 13th century, where its cultivation was initiated [3]. It was identified in the USA, Massachusetts, in 1672 AD, growing in the wilderness. Studies have shown the existence of PO in North America and Canada before European colonization around 1350 – 1359 AD. Recent history has discovered that the eminent 3rd President of the US, Thomas Jefferson, grew this herb in his garden at Monticello for personal consumption. The famous American philosopher, naturalist, and preacher of transcendentalism, Henry David Thoreau, often had it while staying at Walden Pond. Native tribes of North America, the Cherokee and Ojibwe, use it for food or for any medicinal purposes, particularly to treat stomachaches or burns. In Mexico, the Mayan people still use it to treat tuberculosis, whereas the Puebloan folks of New Mexico and Arizona use it for the antiseptic wash. Although considered weeds, its popularity as food/herb has spread around the world [4]. PO has been known since ancient times, as mentioned by Hippocrates (~ 460 BC), the great Greek physician, for its use in problems of the urinary system. Pedanius Discorides (40 – 90 AD), the father of pharmacognosy, wrote in “De Materia Medica” about its use in digestive problems. Whereas Galen (129 – 216 AD), the famous Roman physician/surgeon, indicated the use to cure mouth/tooth infections. But Pliny the Elder has discussed its use as a good luck charm to remove the evils, particularly health complaints. Traditionally, it is always regarded as a wonderful food/vegetable, and also a phyto-medicine that has been enjoyed over a few millennia from India to China to the Mediterranean, Mexico, and North America.

Medicinal uses: PO is usually regarded as an edible, nutritious succulent vegetable, but it has long been known also as a useful medicinal herb. It is traditionally used to prevent or cure numerous ailments due to its strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities. The crushed leaves and stems are frequently used as poultices to treat insect bites, eczema, or burns. Owing to its large contents of α-linoleic acid, it helps lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels, reducing the risk of cardiovascular problems. Its major traditional role is to provide relief from diarrhea, constipation, and stomach ulcers. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties are due to its abundant β-carotene, vitamin C, and flavonoids such as quercetin, all of which help alleviate oxidative stress and reduce inflammation. The herb also helps improve insulin sensitivity, regulating glucose levels in the blood [5].

Phytochemicals: PO has been qualified as an extremely nutritious herb/vegetable, loaded with numerous phytochemicals that include ω-3-fatty acid/α-linoleic acid (ALA), synthesized to a large extent. About 100 grams of fresh leaves contain 300 – 400 mg of α-linoleic and eicosapentenoic acid (EPA), an active form of ALA, produced in considerably greater amounts in leaves than in the stems [6]. In addition, the herb synthesizes antioxidants, carotenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, and vitamins A, C, and E, contributing to anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective activities [1,7]. The plant also produces significant levels of flavonoids that exert anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial actions. Variations in flavonoid levels are observed within the plant parts, with the highest concentrations in roots, followed by stems and leaves. The major flavonoids are kaempferol, myricetin, luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, genistein, and genistin [8]. The ethanolic extract of leaves has mainly kaempferol and apigenin. The former is at higher concentrations than the latter [9]. The three homoisoflavonoids, portulacanones B – D, exert cytotoxic actions on a few human cancer cell lines, SF-268 (human glioblastoma), NCl-H460 (human non-small cell lung cancer), and SGC-7901 (human gastric cancer) [10].

Besides flavonoids, the other important bioactive compounds are alkaloids, which include DOPA, dopamine, and noradrenaline. The levels of dopamine and noradrenaline are higher in leaves than in the stem or seeds. The dopamine content in leaves is significantly higher, ~0.69% of dry weight (DW), whereas the level of norepinephrine is seen much lower, ~0.074% DW [11].

There are a few cyclodopa alkaloids, such as oleraceins A, B, C, D, and E, along with the newly identified compounds 1 & 2, which are newly identified in the plant. Some of them, particularly compounds 1 &2, have shown cytotoxicity against a few human cancer cells in vitro. [12,13].

PO is always a good source of ω-3 fatty acids, unlike other plants, and is found only in fish oils. They have a notable beneficial role in enhancing the immune system, preventing hypertension, and coronary artery diseases, as well as many inflammatory and autoimmune ailments. The α-linolenic and linoleic acids present in PO are seen as crucial for natural growth, promoting health and growth simultaneously, preventing diseases [14,15]. The polysaccharides in PO can significantly help control diabetes due to their ability to regulate blood lipids, alleviate glucose, and modify metabolism [16].

PO has a large reserve of different categories of terpenes, like monoterpenes, portulosides A and B, diterpenes portulene, and triterpene β-amyrin [15].

The plant is especially rich in vitamin A, which supports vision, helps maintain mucous membranes, and provides antioxidant protection that may reduce the risk of oral and lung cancers. PO also contains ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, and other vitamins, including niacin, pyridoxine, and riboflavin [17]. Additional constituents include major amino acids, glutathione, catechol, bergapten (a psoralen derivative), and β-carotene [15,18]. Among the plant parts, the flowers contain the highest levels of phenolic compounds.

The other important bioactive component in PO is the polysaccharide fraction, which is synthesized in a significant level (5.20% fresh weight), and exhibits several bioactive roles, displaying anticancer, antidiabetes, and other beneficial activities. A substantial fraction of the polysaccharides is acidic by nature. Reports further indicate that mucilage isolated from fresh leaves is built by α (1 – 4) linked homogalacturonan containing ~ 65% pectin. It enhances the antibody reaction, following Th1 and Th2 immune responses. The antitumor activities of these polysaccharides occur due to the inhibition of toll-like receptor, NF-κβ signaling pathways, subsequently decreasing the release of cytokines/chemokines, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induced apoptosis [19].

Pharmacological activities: PO contains several important bioactive compounds and therefore shows a range of pharmacological effects beneficial to human health. Studies have demonstrated its potential in conditions involving neurological disorders, diabetes, cancer, inflammatory diseases such as asthma, obesity, and various bacterial and viral infections [7].

Neuroprotective effect – The plant is known to provide significant neuroprotective actions, perhaps due to its strong antioxidant role. PO extract antagonizes rotenone-induced neuronal apoptosis, dopamine depletion, and inhibition of complex-1 in rat striatum owing to its free radical scavenging ability. The event indicates that PO can be a potential neuroprotective agent against Parkinson’s disease [20]. The extract protects cells/tissues from hypoxic damage by eliciting glycolysis and hypoxia-induced complex-1 expression, while promoting electron transport in mitochondria [21]. On the other hand, compound β-cyanin, the colored pigment in PO, can also potently inhibit D-galactose-induced neurotoxicity in mice by upregulating the enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione peroxidase, subsequently reducing lipid peroxidation and malondialdehyde generation [22]. The effectiveness is seen as better than vitamin C, especially regarding alleviating the cognitive impairment in mice [22]. Further, the alkaloid fraction strongly inhibits acetylcholine esterase (IC50 ~ 29.4 µg/ml). In that way, PO can be an effective agent in treating Alzheimer’s disease [23].

Antioxidant effect – Numerous studies have established that PO has strong antioxidant properties, primarily due to its diverse phytoconstituents, including galotannins, ω-3 fatty acids, α-tocopherol (Vitamin E), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), quercetin, kaempferol, and epigenin [24]. Studies also indicate that all plant parts exhibit considerable antioxidant activity. However, among them, the flowers exhibit the highest effect, which is linked with their higher phenolic content, β-carotene, ascorbic acid, and ω-3 fatty acids [25]. Additionally, the phenolic alkaloids, particularly oleraceins A, B, and E, show a very strong antioxidant action [26]. Laboratory studies using Wister albino rats have indicated that PO extract can inhibit lipid peroxidation and NO generation in the liver, kidney, and testis [27], signifying its health-promoting role against free radical damage produced by oxidative stress. It has been noticed that higher levels of α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and β-carotene are present in the PO leaves. So the antioxidant efficiency of fresh leaves is seen as two times higher than that of stems or flowers. On the other hand, melatonin is noticed to be ubiquitously distributed, acting as a good antioxidant [17].

Anticancer activity – Polysaccharides isolated from purslane show promising anticancer activity against several types of tumors. They inhibit nodule formation in human colon cancer (HT-29) stem cells [28] and even display anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune-enhancing effects. In rats with ovarian cancer, these polysaccharides can effectively scavenge free radicals and help regulate immune function [15]. Further, water-soluble sulfated polysaccharides from PO more strongly suppress the growth of HeLa, HepG2, and human cervical cancer cells in both in vitro and in vivo models, suggesting that sulfate groups enhance cytotoxic activity [29]. On the other hand, purslane seed oil inhibits the growth of human liver (HepG2) and lung cancer (A549) cells [30]. Other active phytochemicals, including cerebrosides, homoisoflavonoids, and alkaloids, also show antitumor effects in human tumor cell lines in vitro. Portulacerebroside A induces apoptosis in human liver cancer cells (HCCLM3) by activating the p38 MAPK- and JNK-mediated mitochondrial death pathway [31]. The compound 2,2`-dihydroxy-4`6`-dimethoxy chalcone is more potent against the human gastric adenocarcinoma cell line SGC-7901 (IC50 ~ 1.6 µg/ml) than mitomycin C (IC50 ~ 13.0 µg/ml). Other chalcone derivatives are also seen to be active against several cancer cell lines, including SGC-7901, human myelogenous leukemia (K-562), human glioblastoma (SF-268), and lung cancer (NCI-H460) [15]. The overall findings suggest that PO has strong potential as a source of anticancer agents.

Antidiabetic activity – PO may help manage type 2 diabetes by lowering fasting blood glucose, triglycerides, and total cholesterol, while improving insulin sensitivity and reducing systolic blood pressure. It may also support weight reduction and decrease circulating free fatty acids and hyperinsulinemia. Animal studies reveal that PO improves insulin sensitivity and reduces impaired glucose tolerance and dyslipidemia in streptozotocin-induced and high-calorie diet-fed diabetic rats [32]. In people with type 2 diabetes, powdered seeds increased HDL-C and albumin and lowered total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-C, GGT, ALT, and AST; these effects were reported to be comparable to metformin [33]. PO extract also prevented diabetes-associated vascular inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in type 2 diabetic db/db mice [34]. However, experiments further indicate that the crude polysaccharide extract also lowers blood glucose, regulates the metabolism of serum lipids, and glucose levels in alloxan-induced diabetic mice, in addition to alleviating total cholesterol, triglycerides, and even the fasting blood glucose levels [35].

Anti-inflammatory activity – The herb displays potent anti-inflammatory activity as indicated by in vivo and in vitro experiments [36]. It is reported that an aqueous extract can prevent TNFα-induced vascular inflammatory processes in human umbilical vein endothelial cells by arresting ROS generation and NF-κB activation, as well as lowering the expression of adhesion molecules. The following isoquinoline alkaloids of PO have shown strong anti-inflammatory responses by preventing NO generation in LPS-induced murine macrophages, the RAW264.7 cell line (EC50 = 18.1 – 497.7 µmol/L). Among the following compounds, 1, 6, 9, and 11 have shown more potency than the positive control 3,4-dihdroxybenzohydroxamic acid (EC50 = 82.4 µmol/L) with the values 58.7, 35.4, 18.1, and 36.3 µmol/L, respectively. The anti-inflammatory effect of the flavonoid-enriched fraction is also noticed in the same cell line following a similar experiment. The effect also relies on preventing the expression of iNOS and COX-2 and on suppressing NF-κB and MAPK activation [37]. The aqueous extract of PO also displays an important role by suppressing the vascular inflammatory process, which is closely associated with the development of atherosclerosis [36].

Immunomodulatory effects – The extract has shown strong immunomodulatory activity, enabling it to prevent inflammatory bowel disease and several other ailments. In experimental colitis, treating with the extract reduces the inflammation, alleviating the immune responses, and lowering the severity of colitis [38]. In addition to other bioactive phytocomponents, the isolated polysaccharide fraction of PO shows considerable immunomodulatory effects [39]. The event includes hemolysis of red cells and a simultaneous increase in thymocyte T and B lymphocytes proliferation [40]. Interestingly, a certain part of the polysaccharide fraction also shows an antitumor effect, inhibiting the growth of transplantable sarcoma 180, while increasing WBC and CD+ T lymphocytes, and also the ratio of CD4+/CD8+, establishing the role of immune modulation to prevent tumors [41]. Additionally, oral supplementation of a particular polysaccharide fraction can enhance both humoral and cellular responses [42]. The findings indicate that PO has a wide therapeutic potential to control ailments related to immune system disorders like cancers and asthma.

Hepatoprotective effect – Studies in laboratory rats have confirmed the hepatoprotective effects of PO. The effects likely result from reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, preservation of normal liver tissue, inhibition of fibrosis, and lower levels of hepatic enzymes [43]. Antioxidants such as glutathione, flavonoids, and vitamins A, C, and E appear to contribute to this protection. Together, they support liver health by limiting cell damage, reducing scarring, and helping mitigate conditions such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and toxin-induced injury [44]. In rats, intraperitoneal administration of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induces liver injury and increases bilirubin and other hepatic marker enzymes, including GPT and GOT. Treatment with a 70% alcoholic extract significantly reverses these changes, further supporting its hepatoprotective activity [43,45]. The extract also reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and TGF-β, thereby protecting liver tissue. Overall, preclinical studies suggest that PO may offer therapeutic benefits by reducing hepatic oxidative stress and inflammation [44].

Antibacterial activities – The liable components are most likely flavonoids and phenolic acids, which disrupt the bacterial cell wall membranes and sequentially interfere with metabolic pathways; in that way, they usually combat the pathogens, allowing cellular materials to leak. They even prevent the key enzymes and block the reproductive events, thereby inhibiting bacterial growth [46]. The ethylacetate-soluble fraction of the extract is seen as highly active against dermatophytes [47]. Studies have further shown that the ethanolic extract of PO has antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans, but the exact component remains unknown. The supercritical CO2 extract of PO has shown a more potent antimicrobial capacity against  Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Candida albicans. The extract contains a large amount of bioactive compounds, triterpenes, phytosterols, fatty acids, and ester, and several others. However, nearly 48 – 66 phytochemicals have been identified; the exact one has not yet been discovered. The fraction is seen as significantly active [48].

Antiaging effects: In addition to these bioactivities, PO may also help with hyperlipidemia, hypoxia, and hepatic fibrosis. One particularly notable recent finding is its potential anti-aging role, which may be related to the antioxidant activity of its homoisoflavonoids. In vitro studies show that PO extract can protect human fibroblasts and keratinocytes from UVB-induced damage. It reduces radiation-induced cell death, apoptosis, and DNA damage, suggesting its possible future applications in cosmetics [19,49-51].

Antiulcerogenic effect – The ethanolic extract reduces HCl-induced gastric ulcers as well as the stomach acidity in a dosedependent manner, comparable to sucralfate (0.1g/Kg). Both aqueous and ethanolic extracts reduce the lesions created by absolute ethanol. It also increases the pH of the gastric juice and reduces gastric acid secretion, lowers inflammation, and promotes repair of the gastric mucosa [52]. The enhancement of antioxidant enzymes GSH and SOD, and a simultaneous decrease of lipid peroxidation, might help prevent any free radical damage to the stomach [53]. The anti-inflammatory actions involved in lowering the cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 could also be an added factor. Additionally, PO stimulates epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR), thereby accelerating the healing of stomach ulcers while protecting the intestinal barrier [54]. The possible active phytocomponents behind this event are quercetin, ω-3 fatty acids, polysaccharides, and vitamins A, C, and E [55].

Worried factor: Although the majority of phytochemicals in PO are quite beneficial to health, certain cultivars possess high levels of oxalate (671 –869 mg/100g fresh weight), which can be detrimental to kidney stone patients. So, patients prone to kidney stones should avoid the use of much of it [56].

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