Exploring Typhonium Trilobatum: Medicinal Marvels of Bengal Arum

Typhonium trilobatum / Ghatkol (ঘাটকোল / ঘটকচু)

General features: The botanical name is Typhonium trilobatum (TT). It is also widely known as Bengal Arum and, in English, Dwarf voodoo lily. In Bengali, it is named Ghatkol (ঘাটকোল/ঘটকচু). TT is a medicinal plant native to tropical regions of Asia, particularly India, Bangladesh, Southern China, and several parts of Southeast Asia, including Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Vietnam. The plant belongs to the Araceae family and the genus Typhonium. Characteristically, the plant grows with three-lobed leaves and a deep burgundy-red flower. It is a herbaceous plant, 18 to 24 inches tall, with glossy, dark green trilobed leaves that are cordate-ovate, with a pointed tip, about 6 x 4 inches in length and diameter. The flower is a spadix inflorescence and is ellipsoid in shape, with a purple or burgundy-red hue [1]. It develops from the underground corm or tuber and frequently spreads aggressively and persistently as a weed. The flower blooms with an unpleasant barnyard smell when opening at night or in the evening [2]. The plant tissues are heavily packed with Calcium oxalate crystals. So, chewing it raw creates a burning sensation, causing swelling of the lips and tongue, and occasionally compromising the airways. But even though it is toxic in raw form, the toxicity is removed after cooking, boiling, or drying. In many regions of Southeast Asia, particularly in Bengal, the plants and roots are consumed as part of delicate cuisines. Scientific studies have shown that TT extracts produce potent anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. Some of its bioactive compounds exhibit antiparasitic, anti-lymphatic filariasis, and even anticancer activities [3].

Folk medicinal uses: The plant TT has a long history of folk medicinal use in India and other Southeast Asian countries. Since it contains high levels of oxalates, the plant is traditionally boiled, roasted, or sun-dried, or treated with tamarind juice before medicinal use [4]. The tuber or its extract is generally valued for treating dysentery, diarrhea, stomachaches, and gastric ulcers, and for aiding digestion [5]. Traditionally, extracts of the tuber or leaves are used to treat asthma, bronchitis, excessive coughing, and phlegm. Additionally, juices or poultices made from the tuber and leaves are applied to reduce joint pain, swelling, rheumatism, and local inflammation [6]. The external application of TT can expedite wound healing, reduce abscesses, and prevent infections due to its antimicrobial properties [6]. In West Bengal, particularly in rural areas, the plant has also been claimed to cure lymphatic filariasis caused by parasitic worms [7]. These traditional medicinal claims are based on the plant’s high levels of bioactive chemicals, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, and tannins. The combination of these inhibits prostaglandin synthesis, downregulates inflammatory pathways, providing relief from joint pain and asthma, and protects against diarrhea by creating an antibiofilm against gut pathogens like Vibrio cholerae [8].

History of Typhonium trilobatum: TT has a long history, especially in Southern India. According to ancient “Siddha” manuscripts, mostly from the 12th century, its decoction was used to protect against inflammatory swelling and snake bites. A group of Mughal herbalists evaluated it for its significant diuretic and antipyretic actions. Later, Scottish botanist William Roxburgh (1751 – 1815 AD), while carrying out a botanical survey in Andhra Pradesh,  Southern India, noticed that natives mixed rhizome paste with coconut water and applied it to abscesses or wounds; the process was validated afterward for antimicrobial action. From Sri Lanka to Myanmar and several other regions of Southeast Asia, for centuries, warm leaf poultices were used to relieve arthritis pain. During the 19^th century, British Ayurvedic compilations mentioned its uses in “A valuable Flora of Hindustan” as a safer tonic for analgesic, antifever, and anti-inflammatory actions. Starting from the mid-20th century, its traditional uses became popular [4].

Phytochemicals and associated medicinal roles: The plant shows diverse profiles of bioactive chemical compounds, which include sterols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins. Among the phenolic acids, the majority are p-coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid. These phenolics produce antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects by scavenging endogenously generated free radicals [6]. The root and leaf extracts have shown 14.06 mg/gm and 10.8 mg/gm equivalent of gallic acid, respectively. P-coumaric acid reduces oxidative stress, lowering cellular inflammation. Chlorogenic acid is a potent antioxidant component that efficiently scavenges ROS or generated free radicals. Whereas caffeic acid acts as an anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial agent [9].

The plant also produces versatile terpenes, providing unique scents, causing defensive activities, and offering several medicinal actions. They are mainly volatile monoterpenes, composed with 10-carbon, existing in essential oils, bearing a floral scent, such as carvone, 1,8-cineole, borneol, camphor, chrysanthenone, and citronella [6]. Carvone has a minty aroma with antimicrobial action. 1,8-Cineole has a camphor-like smell, exerting anti-inflammatory activity. Borneol is a traditional pain-reliever with a woody smell. Camphene, a volatile liquid with a pungent smell. Camphor produces a characteristic cooling sensation and acts as a defense component against herbivores. Chrysanthenone demonstrates potent insect-repelling character, whereas citronella releases a citrusy smell [6].

The most abundant and identified phytosterol in TT is β-sitosterol, especially in the tubers, although there are also a few unidentified ones in the leaves, and they provide anti-inflammatory, immune-boosting, and anticancer actions.

TT also synthesizes a few alkaloids belonging to the aristolactam and steroid alkaloid group, as shown below, which have anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting COX-2 enzymes, but carry a risk of nephrotoxicity at high concentrations [4]. Additionally, the plant has a significant number of saponins, which also contribute to numerous therapeutic benefits, such as wound-healing, anti-diarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and immune-boosting actions [10].

Regarding flavonoid content, ethanol or ethyl acetate extracts of leaves contain a large reserve of mostly quercetin and catechin, primarily in glycoside forms, compared to tubers [11]. These compounds have strong anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, antioxidant, and neuroprotective roles by controlling oxidative stress and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, which are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s.

TT contains significant levels of insoluble, needle-shaped calcium oxalate, Ca (-COO)₂, within the tubers (~12.6 mg/100grams), whereas the levels are somewhat lower inside leaves and stems. If any raw parts of the plant are chewed, the solubilized crystals will exert a stabbing or irritating sensation in the mouth, tongue, and throat, causing inflammatory responses. Advantageously, cooking, boiling, baking, or treating with citric or tartaric acid (~1%) can substantially reduce the oxalate activity [12].

Pharmacological effects: TT displays a wide range of pharmacological activities, which include anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiparasitic activities owing to its versatile bioactive phytochemicals.

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions – The plant synthesizes aristolactam alkaloids, which have been shown to potently inhibit COX-2 enzymes in vitro, suggesting that aristolactam alkaloids may be an underlying factor. In vitro studies further indicate that aqueous or methanolic plant extracts downregulate several pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6. They also reduce edema and swelling, as observed in animal experiments [5,6]. Additionally, the ethanolic leaf extract shows strong analgesic action in vivo in Swiss Albino mice, comparable to the standard drug, diclofenac [5].

Antioxidant effect – A large reserve of flavonoids and phenolics in plant extracts, particularly in ethanolic leaf extracts, can potently scavenge free radicals or ROS generated within the tissues. Experiments using DPPH free radical scavenging, NO radical scavenging, and scavenging of hydrogen peroxide-generated peroxide radicals strongly support this. The action is dose-dependent when tested using the chloroform, methanol, and ethanol extracts of roots, with ascorbic acid as the standard [6].

Antimicrobial and anti-diarrheal activities – The methanolic leaf extract inhibits cholera toxin production, suppressing transcription of ctxAB, vpsT, and vpsR genes in virulent multi-drug-resistant toxigenic Vibrio cholerae. It blocks biofilm formation, thereby averting colonization in the intestine [7]. Evidence further indicates that polyphenols are one of the active constituents, since they block the B-subunit of the toxin’s binding to the GM1 receptors on enterocytes [13].

Antiparasitic/ Antifilarial action – The methanolic tuber extract shows robust toxicity against Brugia malayi, which is one of the nematodes liable for lymphatic filariasis. The identified active components are linoleic and palmitic acids (IC₅₀ = 6.09 ± 0.78 µg/l and 4.27 ± 0.63 µg/ml), and the results are comparable to those of clinically available drugs, ivermectin and diethylcarbamazine (IC₅₀ = 11.88 ± 1.07 µg/ml and 194 ± 2.28 µg/ml) in 24 hours period [7]. The mature leaf extract in methanol produces dosedependent larvicidal effect against the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus. About 0.5% solution shows the highest mortality rate within 72 hours [14].

Antibacterial activity – Significant antibacterial activity has been noticed in the ethanolic extract of TT tuber against Salmonella typhi, Proteus mirabilis, and Staphylococcus aureus [15]. The effect mainly relies on the broad range of the plant’s phytochemical contents: phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenes, tannins, and saponins. So far, no specific component has been identified [16].

Neurological and gastrointestinal activities – Chloroform, methanol, and ethanol extracts of TT leaves and roots show dose-dependent antidepressant effects in animal models at 100–200 mg/kg [17]. The associated neuroprotective activity is likely related to the plant’s diverse phytochemicals and their antioxidant actions in the CNS, particularly their ability to reduce oxidative damage [18]. Chloroform extracts also produce antispasmodic effects by reducing gastric motility and relaxing intestinal smooth muscle, thereby relieving painful spasms [17]. These effects may occur through Ca²⁺ channel blockade or modulation of neurotransmitters involved in muscle contraction [6].

Antidiabetic activity – TT shows strong antidiabetic and hypoglycemic activity, along with protective effects on the pancreas. Its extracts help lower blood glucose, reduce insulin resistance, and protect against diabetic complications [6]. Flavonoids, alkaloids, sterols, and saponins may collectively contribute to the glucose-lowering effect observed in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats. Oral administration of ethyl acetate leaf extract produced the strongest response when compared with the standard drug glibenclamide [19]. Proposed mechanisms include delayed glucose absorption, protection of pancreatic β-cells, enhanced insulin release, and reduced insulin resistance [20].

Anticancer effect – Several studies indicate that TT has antiproliferative and tumor-inhibitory properties, acting by inducing apoptosis and suppressing tumor growth. The plant contains numerous phytochemicals capable of producing significant anticancer effects [21]. Its high levels of polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins appear to contribute to chemoprevention through strong antioxidant and free-radical-scavenging activity, which may reduce DNA damage and cellular mutations involved in carcinogenesis. This effect is associated with increased expression of the proapoptotic protein Bax and reduced expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, leading to activation of caspase-3 and caspase-9 and subsequent cancer-cell death. Compounds in TT extracts may also limit uncontrolled cancer-cell proliferation by arresting the cell cycle at the G2/M or G0/G1 phases [22].

Toxicity: The toxicity of TT is due to its high content of insoluble calcium oxalate crystals and a few proteolytic enzymes, particularly in the tubers. If ingested raw, it may produce intense irritation in the mouth, tongue, and throat. But when cooked and treated with tamarind sauce,  these adverse effects mostly go away [23].

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